The nano/micro particles have been widely used as a carrier of therapeutic and contrast imaging agents. The nano/micro particles have many advantages, such as, specificity, controlled release, multifunctionality and engineerability. By tuning the chemical, physical and geometrical properties, the efficacy of delivery of nano/micro particle can be improved. In this study, by analyzing the effect of physical and geometrical properties of particle, such as, size, shape, material property and flow condition, the optimal condition for particle delivery will be explored. The objectives of this study are (1) to develop predictive mathematical models and (2) experimental models for particle margination and adhesion, and (3) to find optimal particle geometry in terms of size and shape to enhance the efficiency of its delivery. The effect of particle size expressed in terms of Stokes number and shape, namely, spherical, ellipsoidal, hemispherical, discoidal and cylindrical particle on the particle trajectory is investigated. For discoidal and cylindrical particles, the effect of aspect ratio is also considered. To calculate particle trajectory in the linear shear flow near the substrate, Newton's law of motion is decomposed into hydrodynamic drag and resistance induced by particle motion. The drag and resistance is estimated through finite volume formulation using Fluent v6.3. Particle behavior in the linear shear flow does strongly depend on Stokes number. Spherical particle is transported following the streamline in the absence of external body force. However, non-spherical particles could across the streamline and marginate to the substrate. For non-spherical particles, the optimal [Stokes number] in terms of particle margination is observed; [Stokes number almost equal to] 20 for ellipsoidal, hemispherical and discoidal particle; [Stokes number almost equal to] 10 for cylindrical particle. For discoidal particle with [gamma subscript d]=0.2 shows fastest margination to the substrate. The effect of gravitational force is also considered with respect to the fluid direction. When the gravitational force is applied, mostly, gravitational force plays a dominant role for particle margination. However, using small particle aspect ratio ([gamma subscript d]=0.2 and 0.33), spontaneous drift induced by particle-fluid-substrate interaction could overcome gravitational effect in some cases ([Stokes number]=10, G=0.1). In addition the adhesion characteristic of spherical particle has been studied using in vitro micro fluidic chamber system with different particle size and flow condition. The experimental results are compared to the mathematical model developed by Decuzzi and Ferrari (Decuzzi and Ferrari, 2006) and in vivo test (Decuzzi et al., 2010). The optimal particle size for S=75 and 90 is found to be 4-5 [micrometer] through the in vitro non-specific interaction of spherical particle on the biological substrate. The suggested mathematical model has proven to be valid for current experimental condition. At the end, the mathematical model, in vitro flow chamber results and in vivo test have been compared and the scaling law for particle adhesion on the vessel wall has been confirmed. / text

Cancer remains a global pandemic and is rapidly overtaking other diseases as the no.1 killer in developing nations. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been advanced as a minimally invasive cancer therapy. In addition, the emergence of harmful microbes with increasing resistance to drugs has prompted the employment of photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT) as a promising alternative to combat antibiotic resistance. In PDT and PACT, a photosensitizer (dye/drug) upon activation by light transfers energy to molecular oxygen producing singlet oxygen which kills cells. There is increased attention and research into more selective and non-aggregated photosensitizers that will better PDT in treating cancer. This research work is focused on design and synthesis of non-aggregated asymmetric phthalocyanines (dyes) tagged with mitochondrial targeting vehicles to maximize selectivity and photo-killing of tumor cells. Chapter 1 presents a brief review of the current status of PDT and treatment of cancer. The three components of PDT namely, light, oxygen and the photosensitizer, are briefly discussed giving a concise overview of the development of each of them in bettering PDT as an alternative to cancer therapy. Chapter 2 outlines the design, synthesis and characterization of two non-aggregated symmetric ZnPc isomers that have improved water solubility due to incorporation of triethylene glycol groups. The extension of the max absorption to near-IR via non-peripheral substitution on the Pc macrocycle is reported, while comparing the photophysical characteristics of both isomers. Chapter 3 details the improved selectivity of photosensitizers by conjugating ZnPcs to rhodamine B, a delocalized lipophilic cation, which targets the mitochondria of the cell. This conjugation achieved 70% more cell death suggesting that incorporation of rhodamine improved cellular uptake and localization of the photosensitizers which is crucial. Chapters 4 and 5 cover the design, synthesis, characterization, and photodynamic therapy evaluation of ZnPc and phosphorous phthalocyanines. Introduction of phosphorous as an electron deficient central atom promoted a 42 nm bathochromic shift relative to the corresponding ZnPc isomer. Additionally, the effect of peripheral and non-peripheral substitution on phototoxicity of these new compounds is studied and reported. Chapter 5 also gives concluding remarks, and future directions of this work.

Στο τομέα της νανοϊατρικής ένας από τους σημαντικότερους στόχους είναι η ανάπτυξη φαρμακευτικών νανοφορέων που θα μεταφέρουν και θα αποδεσμεύουν εκλεκτικά το φάρμακο στον πάσχοντα ιστό. Η χορήγηση δοξορουβικίνης (Dox), για παράδειγμα, εμφανίζει σημαντικά προβλήματα έλλειψης εκλεκτικότητας και συστημικής τοξικότητας. Μία πιθανή προσέγγιση για την περισσότερο εκλεκτική χορήγηση της Dox στους καρκινικούς όγκους είναι η χορήγηση της μετά τον εγκλεισμό της σε μαγνητικά στοχευόμενους νανοφορείς. Σκοπός της παρούσας μεταπτυχιακής εργασίας ειδίκευσης ήταν η μελέτη μαγνητικών νανοφορέων με βάση συμπολυμερή πολύ(μεθακρυλικού οξέος)-g-πολύ(μεθακρυλικής αιθυλενογλυκόλης) (p(MAA-g-EGMA) με διαφορετικά χαρακτηριστικά πολυμερικού κελύφους και ο προσδιορισμός εκείνων των χαρακτηριστικών που προσδίδουν στους νανοφορείς βέλτιστη συμπεριφορά. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, μελετήθηκε η σταθερότητα των μαγνητικών νανοφορέων με διαφορετικό μήκος αλυσίδων πολύ(αιθυλενογλυκόλης) και διαφορετική πυκνότητα αρνητικού φορτίου σε διάφορα μέσα όπως υδατικά διαλύματα χλωριούχου νατρίου (ΝαCl), ρυθμιστικού διαλύματος φωσφορικών (PBS), δοξορουβικίνης καθώς επίσης και σε υδατικά διαλύματα διαφόρων τιμών pH. Μελετήθηκε επίσης η φόρτωση του φαρμάκου σε αυτούς καθώς επίσης και η αποδέσμευση του από τους συγκεκριμένους νανοφορείς σε διάφορα μέσα (νερό, υδατικό διάλυμα PBS και διάλυμα αλβουμίνης σε PBS). Οι νανοφορείς παρασκευάστηκαν μέσω πρόσδεσης του συμπολυμερούς πολυ(μεθακρυλικού οξέος)-g-πολυ(μεθακρυλικής αιθυλενογλυκόλης) (p(MAA-g-EGMA) στην επιφάνεια νανοκρυσταλλιτών Fe2O3 κατά τη διάρκεια ανάπτυξής τους. Η μελέτη της σταθερότητας έγινε με τη μέθοδο της δυναμικής σκέδασης φωτός (DLS). Η μελέτη της φόρτωσης και της αποδέσμευσης του φαρμάκου στους και από τους νανοφορείς έγινε με τη μέθοδο της φασματοφωτομετρίας φθορισμού. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται συνοπτικά τα διάφορα είδη νανοφορέων, οι ιδιότητες καθώς και οι εφαρμογές αυτών. Γίνεται επίσης μια σύντομη βιβλιογραφική ανασκόπηση σε ότι αφορά τη φόρτωση και αποδέσμευση φαρμάκων από νανοφορείς. Το δεύτερο κεφάλαιο είναι αφιερωμένο στις τεχνικές και τις μεθόδους που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν στα πλάισια της συγκεκριμένης εργασίας καθώς επίσης και των πειραματικών διαδικασιών.Τέλος, το τρίτο κεφάλαιο αφορά στην παράθεση και τον σχολιασμό των αποτελεσμάτων,τα οποία μπορούν να συνοψιστούν στα εξής συμπεράσματα:  Οι μαγνητικοί νανοφορείς με βάση συμπολυμερή πολύ(μεθακρυλικού οξέος)-g-πολύ(μεθακρυλικής αιθυλενογλυκόλης) (p(MAA-g-EGMA) έχουν ικανοποιητικά 7 χαρακτηριστικά μεγέθους και ζ δυναμικού για παρατεταμένη παραμονή στην κυκλοφορία μετά από ενδοφλέβια χορήγηση, γεγονός που αποτελεί προϋπόθεση για την εφαρμογή τους ως συστήματα εκλεκτικής μεταφοράς (στόχευσης) αντικαρκινικών φαρμάκων.  Οι υψηλές τιμές φόρτωσης της δοξορουβικίνης στους νανοφορείς με υψηλή πυκνότητα ανιονικών φορτίων, λόγω ισχυρότερων ηλεκτροστατικών αλληλεπιδράσεων με το θετικά φορτισμένο φάρμακο αποτελεί σημαντικό πλεονέκτημα των νανοφορέων αυτών σαν συστήματα χορήγησης δοξορουβικίνης.  Η αύξηση του ρυθμού αποδέσμευσης της δοξορουβικίνης από τους νανοφορείς σε διαλύματα αλβουμίνης με ελάττωση του pH είναι σημαντική καθώς παρέχει τη δυνατότητα μιας σχετικά εκλεκτικής διάθεσης του φαρμάκου στους καρκινικούς όγκους όπου επικρατούν συνθήκες χαμηλότερου από το το φυσιολογικό pH. Συμπερασματικά, τα αποτελέσματα που λήφθηκαν δικαιολογούν την περαιτέρω μελέτη των μαγνητικών νανοφορέων δοξορουμπικίνης για την καταλληλότητά τους ως φορείς στοχευμένης χορήγησης του φαρμάκου σε καρκινικούς όγκους. / In the field of nanomedicine, one of the most important targets is the development of functional nanoassemblies which will deliver and release selectively the drug to the suffering tissue. For example, the administration of doxorubicin (Dox) displays lack of selectivity and systemic toxicity issues. A possible approach towards a more selective delivery of Dox to the target tissue is its encapsulation at magnetically targeted nanoparticles. The present postgraduate thesis’ aim was the study of magnetic nanocarriers based on copolymers of poly(methacrylic acid)- graft -poly(ethyleneglycol methacrylate) (p(MAA -g- EGMA)) with different structural characteristics and the determination of those characteristics, that impart to the nanocarriers the optimal performance. Specifically, the stability of magnetic nanoparticles, with different chain length of poly(ethyleneglycol) and different density of negative charges, was studied at various media such as NaCl, pH and Dox concentration. The drug loading in the nanocarriers was also studied, as well as its release by the specific nanocarriers at various media (distilled water, PBS and albumin solution in PBS). The nanoparticles were prepared via a self-assembly process of the polymers [poly(methacrylic acid)-graft-poly(ethyleneglycol methacrylate) (p(MAA-g-EGMA)] on the surface of the growing iron oxide nanocrystallites. The stability studies were performed with the use of DLS technique. The study of the drug loading and release from the nanoparticles was followed using the fluorescence spectroscopy. In the first chapter, the various types of nanoparticles, their properties, as well as their applications are presented briefly. Additionally, a short literature review with regard to the loading and release of drugs from nanoparticles is presented. The second chapter refers to the techniques and methods that were utilized in the context of the present thesis, as well as to the experimental procedures. Finally, in the third chapter the experimental results are presented and discussed. Based on the results of this study:  The magnetic nanocarriers based on copolymers poly(methacrylic acid)- graft -poly(ethyleneglycolmethacrylate) (p(MAA -g- EGMA)) have satisfying characteristics of size and z potential for long blood residence time after an intravenous injection, which is a prerequisite for their application as controlled (targeted) delivery systems for anticancer drugs. The high values of doxorubicin loading without stability loss is an important advantage.  The increase in the release rate of doxorubicin by the nanocarriers in albumin solutions with low pH (5-6) is important, since it facilitates a relatively selective release of the drug in cancer tumors which display lower pH than that of the normal tissues. In conclusion, the results of the research justify the further in-vitro study of the suitability of the magnetic doxorubicin nanocarriers as selective delivery systems of the drug to the cancer tumors.

Effective detection and treatment of tumor malignancies depends upon identifying targets – molecular markers that differentiate cancer cells from healthy cells. Current cancer therapies involve targeting overexpressed specific gene products. An alternative approach is proposed here: to specifically target combinations of cell-surface receptors using heteromultivalent ligands (htMVLs). There are about 2500 genes encoding for cellsurface proteins in the human genome that can potentially be targeted. Taken as sets, there can be ~ 10⁶ two-receptor combinations and ~ 10⁹ three-receptor combinations available. Our group envisions that using cell-surface protein combinations that are expressed on a cancer cell but not on a normal cell, multivalent constructs displaying complementary ligands of weak affinities can be assembled. These multivalent ligands should bind with high avidity to cancer populations in vivo, and provide a degree of specificity not seen with current approaches. As a proof-of-concept, a series of multivalent ligands were designed and synthesized for a model system consisting of the human Melanocortin subtype 4 receptor (hMC4R) and the Cholecystokinin subtype 2 receptor (CCK-2R). Modeling studies on GPCR dimers predicted that a minimum linker span of 20 - 50 Å would be required to non-covalently crosslink these two receptors. The multivalent ligands were assembled using a modular parallel synthesis approach and using solidphase chemistries. A variety of linkers were explored ranging from highly rigid to highly flexible, and using natural and/or synthetic building blocks. Ligand binding affinities were evaluated using a lanthanide based competitive binding assay in cells that expressed both receptors (bivalent binding) vs those that expressed only one of the receptors (monovalent binding), and were demonstrated to have enhanced binding affinities of up to nearly two orders of magnitude. The promising ligands were further explored by synthesizing fluorescently labeled and/or lanthanide chelate labeled monovalent and heterobivalent ligands designed for in vitro and in vivo studies. More explorative work using these labeled constructs is in progress. To the best of our knowledge, the author believes this is the first such demonstration of a 'synthetic htMVL' directed recruitment and crosslinking of two heterologous cell-surface receptors. This receptor combination approach opens up new possibilities for single cell imaging, cancer detection and therapeutic intervention, and can provide a revolutionary new platform technology with which to direct therapeutics to defined cell populations.

DNA damage occurs through endogenous and exogenous sources, and can lead to stalled replication forks, genetic disorders, cancer, and cell death. Homologous recombination (HR) is a relatively fast and error-free repair pathway for damaged DNA, which can occur through a gene conversion event or through a crossing-over event with the exchange of genetic material. Homologous recombination occurs most frequently in the G2 phase of the cell cycle and utilizes the sister chromatid as the repair template. When the sister chromatid is unavailable, the homologous chromosome or a homologous sequence in an ectopic location can be used to repair the lesion; the latter of which is referred to as ectopic homologous recombination (EHR). Rad51 is a key protein involved in HR, and to test its role in EHR, variant Rad51 proteins were expressed in murine hybridoma cells. These Rad51 variants were assayed for their effects on EHR. Excess wild-type Rad51 as well as a deficiency of wild-type Rad51 decreased EHR from the background level found in these cell lines. Thus, Rad51 is necessary for EHR, but there may be an optimal amount of Rad51 required for efficient EHR. Expression of the Rad51 catalytic mutants Rad51K133A and Rad51K133R was found to have an inhibitory effect on EHR, as expected based on the loss of ATP binding and ATP hydrolysis, respectively, in these variants. Excess wild-type Rad51 was verified in this study to increase HR via a gene targeting assay. MMC treatment, but not ionizing radiation, leads to an increase in EHR in the presence of excess wild-type Rad51. Thus, endogenous levels of Rad51 are sufficient to maintain EHR, but in the presence of excess wild-type Rad51, the level of EHR can increase in response to certain DNA damaging agents and in response to gene targeting.

Melanoma is the most deadly form of skin cancers, with an incidence increasing more rapidly than any other malignant cancer in the past 40 years. Metastatic melanoma is resistant to conventional treatments, such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Our lab has previously demonstrated that Mcl-1 is a key contributor in protecting melanoma from therapy-induced cell death. RNAi therapeutics was employed as a novel way to silence the anti-apoptotic protein by using Mcl-1 mRNA sequence-specific siRNAs in vitro. In our hands, passive non-targeted delivery of RNAi therapy into melanoma tumours has been shown to be neither effective, nor selective in vitro and in vivo. Consequently, in this study, siRNA was linked to a delivery system which expressed a ligand specifically targeting melanoma cells. Previously shown, melanoma overexpresses the cell surface ganglioside GD3, thus it is my belief that the anti-GD3 R24 monoclonal antibody can function as a targeting molecule. The antibody was linked to coated cationic liposomes (CCLs) carrying siRNA molecules. Our first step was to confirm R24 ligation to CCLs. Untargeted CCLs showed insignificant values of antibody, whereas antibody-conjugated CCLs presented approximately 30 antibodies per liposome. I also confirmed that siRNA was internalized within CCLs using spectrometry, with an encapsulation efficiency of approximately 80%. Since liposomes need to be small to be effective in vitro and in vivo, CCLs were confirmed to be less than 100nm in diameter. In vitro studies using fluorescent microscopy demonstrated greater binding to melanoma cells with antibody-conjugated CCLs as compared to untargeted CCLs. In vivo experiments showed specific localization of targeted CCLs to induced subcutaneous mouse xenograft tumours. Western blotting demonstrated greater Mcl-1 knockdown using GD3-targeted CCLs. Taken together, these results suggest that anti-GD3 antibodies can serve as targeting molecules to deliver siRNA to melanoma cells and furthermore, GD3-targeted CCLs can promote siRNA-mediated gene silencing. / Thesis (Master, Pathology & Molecular Medicine) -- Queen's University, 2010-09-02 10:29:37.944

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<p>This minithesis seeks to understand why infrastructure projects fail to contribute effectively to poverty (rural) reduction. The thesis assumes that though infrastructure provision can impact positively on rural poverty reduction, the same infrastructure provision has worsened or put people in worse conditions of poverty. Therefore it is not automatic that infrastructure provision would reduce rural poverty as often held. The thesis goes on to postulate that a positive relationship between infrastructure and rural poverty reduction is best achieved within a broad or generic policy which provides the framework for providing such infrastructure. The thesis assesses these assertions empirically by first, testing the relationships between infrastructure and rural poverty reduction. Here a large scale infrastructure project in Ghana known as the Keta sea defence project serves as the case study. Secondly the thesis assesses Ghana&rsquo / s infrastructure provision policy environment and its implications on rural poverty reduction in the affected communities of the Keta sea defence project.</p>