The Tim-3+ T cells in HIV infection are dysfunctional in proliferation or cytokine production. Here, we evaluated the effects of Tim-3 expression on the cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells in HIV infection by examining 1) the ability of Tim-3+ CD8+ T cells to make perforin and 2) the direct ability of Tim-3+ CD8+ T cells to kill HIV infected CD4+ target cells. Tim-3+ CD8+ T cells maintained higher levels of perforin. However, these cells were defective in their ability to degranulate. Blocking the Tim-3 signalling pathway enhanced the cytotoxic capabilities of HIV specific CD8+ T cells by increasing: their degranulation capacity, their ability to release perforin, their ability to target activated granzyme B to HIV antigen expressing CD4+ T cells and their ability to suppress HIV infection of CD4+ T cells. Thus, the Tim-3 receptor can down-regulate the CD8+ T cell cytotoxicity through inhibition of degranulation and perforin/granzyme secretion.

The Tim-3+ T cells in HIV infection are dysfunctional in proliferation or cytokine production. Here, we evaluated the effects of Tim-3 expression on the cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells in HIV infection by examining 1) the ability of Tim-3+ CD8+ T cells to make perforin and 2) the direct ability of Tim-3+ CD8+ T cells to kill HIV infected CD4+ target cells. Tim-3+ CD8+ T cells maintained higher levels of perforin. However, these cells were defective in their ability to degranulate. Blocking the Tim-3 signalling pathway enhanced the cytotoxic capabilities of HIV specific CD8+ T cells by increasing: their degranulation capacity, their ability to release perforin, their ability to target activated granzyme B to HIV antigen expressing CD4+ T cells and their ability to suppress HIV infection of CD4+ T cells. Thus, the Tim-3 receptor can down-regulate the CD8+ T cell cytotoxicity through inhibition of degranulation and perforin/granzyme secretion.

Background: Psychological and physical stress can either enhance or suppress immune functions depending on a variety of factors such as duration and severity of stressful situation. Chronic stress exerts a significantly suppressive effect on immune functions. However, the mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon remain to be elucidated. Autophagy plays an essential role in modulating cellular homeostasis and immune responses. However, it is not known yet whether autophagy contributes to chronic stress-induced immunosuppression. T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3 (Tim-3) has shown immune-suppressive effects and obviously positive regulation on cell apoptosis. Tim-3 combines with Tim-3 ligand galectin-9 to modulate apoptosis. However, its impact on autophagy and chronic stress-induced immunosuppression is not yet identified. Results: We found remarkably higher autophagy level in the spleens of mice that were subjected to chronic restraint stress compared with the control group. We also found that inhibition of autophagy by the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) significantly attenuated chronic stress-induced alterations of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine levels. We further elucidated that 3-MA dramatically inhibited the reduction of lymphocyte numbers. Moreover, chronic stress dramatically enhanced the expression of Tim-3 and galectin-9. Inhibition of Tim-3 by small interfering RNA against Tim-3 significantly decreased the level of autophagy and immune suppression in isolated primary splenocytes from stressed mice. In addition, α-lactose, a blocker for the interaction of Tim-3 and galectin-9, also decreased the autophagy level and immune suppression. Conclusion: Chronic stress induces autophagy, resulting with suppression of immune system. Tim-3 and galectin-9 play a crucial regulatory role in chronic stress-induced autophagy. These studies suggest that Tim-3 mediated autophagy may offer a novel therapeutic strategy against the deleterious effects of chronic stress on the immune system.

HCV is remarkable at disrupting human immunity to establish chronic infection. The accumulation of Treg cells at the site of infection and upregulation of inhibitory signaling pathways (such as T-cell Ig and mucin domain protein-3 (Tim-3) and galectin-9 (Gal-9)) play pivotal roles in suppressing antiviral effector T (Teff) cells that are essential for viral clearance. While Tim-3/Gal-9 interactions have been shown to negatively regulate Teff cells, their role in regulating Treg cells is poorly understood. To explore how Tim-3/Gal-9 interactions regulate HCV-mediated Treg-cell development, here we provide pilot data showing that HCV-infected human hepatocytes express higher levels of Gal-9 and TGF-β, and upregulate Tim-3 expression and regulatory cytokines TGF-β/IL-10 in co-cultured human CD4+ T cells, driving conventional CD4+ T cells into CD25+Foxp3+ Treg cells. Additionally, recombinant Gal-9 protein can transform TCR-activated CD4+ T cells into Foxp3+ Treg cells in a dose-dependent manner. Importantly, blocking Tim-3/Gal-9 ligations abrogates HCV-mediated Treg-cell induction by HCV-infected hepatocytes, suggesting that Tim-3/Gal-9 interactions may regulate human Foxp3+ Treg-cell development and function during HCV infection.

HCV is remarkable at disrupting human immunity to establish chronic infection. The accumulation of Treg cells at the site of infection and upregulation of inhibitory signaling pathways (such as T-cell Ig and mucin domain protein-3 (Tim-3) and galectin-9 (Gal-9)) play pivotal roles in suppressing antiviral effector T (Teff) cells that are essential for viral clearance. While Tim-3/Gal-9 interactions have been shown to negatively regulate Teff cells, their role in regulating Treg cells is poorly understood. To explore how Tim-3/Gal-9 interactions regulate HCV-mediated Treg-cell development, here we provide pilot data showing that HCV-infected human hepatocytes express higher levels of Gal-9 and TGF-β, and upregulate Tim-3 expression and regulatory cytokines TGF-β/IL-10 in co-cultured human CD4+ T cells, driving conventional CD4+ T cells into CD25+Foxp3+ Treg cells. Additionally, recombinant Gal-9 protein can transform TCR-activated CD4+ T cells into Foxp3+ Treg cells in a dose-dependent manner. Importantly, blocking Tim-3/Gal-9 ligations abrogates HCV-mediated Treg-cell induction by HCV-infected hepatocytes, suggesting that Tim-3/Gal-9 interactions may regulate human Foxp3+ Treg-cell development and function during HCV infection.

Tim-3 has been linked to several inflammatory diseases by regulation on both adaptive and innate immunities. Here, we assessed the augmented expression of Tim-3 in brain tissue of ischemia-reperfusion mice and PBMCs of ischemic stroke (IS) patients. The augmented expression of Tim-3 significantly correlated with abnormal lipid levels. In vitro studies showed that plasma from ischemic stroke patients induced Tim-3 expression in THP- 1 cells. More importantly, our results revealed a significant correlation of Tim-3 expression on CD4 + T cells with systemic IL-17 in patients with ischemic stroke. Consistently, we also found a positive correlation of Tim-3 expression on CD14 + monocytes and serum TNF-a in IS patients. Collectively, augmented expression of Tim-3 may play an important role in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke by regulation of proinflammatory cytokines. Further studies will give us new insights on the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke and potentially provide a new target at the medical therapy.

Les lymphocytes T cytotoxiques (CTLs) présents au niveau des tumeurs reconnaissent des antigènes présentés par les cellules cancéreuses, mais ne parviennent pas à induire le rejet de ces tumeurs chez les patients cancéreux. Cette observation a amené les immunologistes à étudier les différents mécanismes d'immunosuppression induits par les tumeurs qui permettent aux cellules cancéreuses d'échapper à la reconnaissance et à la destruction immunitaires. L'un des mécanismes contribuant à la résistance des tumeurs aux réponses immunitaires est le recrutement de lymphocytes T CD4+ régulateurs (Tregs). Les Tregs s'accumulent au niveau des sites tumoraux et jouent un rôle important dans la suppression des réponses immunitaires dirigées contre les cellules tumorales. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous rapportons que des épitopes tumoraux dérivés des protéines NY-ESO-1 et TRAG-3 stimulent à la fois des lymphocytes T CD4+ auxiliaires (Th) et des Tregs chez des patients porteurs de mélanome. Grâce à une analyse clonotypique, nous démontrons que, contrairement aux cellules CD4+ Th, les TCR des Tregs dirigés contre NY-ESO-1 et TRAG-3 sont retrouvés à la fois dans le répertoire des Tregs naturels (CD4+CD25high) et dans celui des cellules T CD4+ classiques/Th (CD4+CD25-), au niveau des PBMCs des patients. Cette observation suggère que le recrutement des Tregs spécifiques d'antigènes tumoraux se fait en partie par la conversion des cellules T CD4+ classiques suite à leur stimulation chronique par des antigènes de tumeurs. / Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) present in tumors recognize tumor antigens presented by cancer cells but fail to induce tumor rejection in patients. This observation has led immunologists to study the different mechanisms of tumor-induced immunosuppression that allow cancer cells to escape from recognition and destruction by the immune system. One of the mechanisms contributing to tumor resistance to immune responses is the recruitment of CD4+ regulatory T cells (Tregs). Tregs accumulate at tumor sites and play an important role in suppressing immune responses against tumor cells. In this thesis, we report that tumor epitopes derived from the proteins NY-ESO-1 and TRAG-3 stimulate both CD4+ T helper cells (Th) and Tregs in patients with metastatic melanoma. Through clonotypic analysis, we show that, within PBMCs of melanoma patients, tumor antigen-specific Tregs, but not Th cells, share a common TCR usage with naturally-occuring Tregs (CD4+CD25high) and Th cells (CD4+CD25-), suggesting that their recruitment occurs through the peripheral conversion of CD4+CD25- T cells upon chronic antigen exposure. The second part of this thesis consists of the study of inhibitory receptors expressed by CTLs directed against tumor antigens which, upon engagement by their ligands presented on the surface of tumor cells, activate negative regulatory pathways. Here, we report that tumor-induced CTLs directed against a peptide derived from NY-ESO-1 in melanoma patients upregulate the expression of the inhibitory receptors PD-1, Tim-3 and BTLA. Additionaly, the co-expression of PD-1 with Tim-3 and/or BTLA defines populations of dysfunctional tumor antigen-specific CTLs.

Die von T-Helfer (Th) -Zellen produzierten Zytokine spielen eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Einleitung, der Aufrechterhaltung und der Regulation von Immunantworten. Bei der Untersuchung von Immunantworten hat sich eine vereinfachte Einteilung der Th-Zellen in zwei Klassen als hilfreich erwiesen: Th1 und Th2. Stabil differenziell exprimierte Oberflächenmoleküle werden benötigt, um lebende Th1- und Th2-Zellen identifizieren, auf Einzelzellebene charakterisieren und möglicherweise die von ihnen erzeugten Immunantworten modulieren zu können. Auf der Suche nach solchen Molekülen wurde in Zusammenarbeit mit der Firma Millennium Pharmaceuticals das Oberflächenmolekül TIM-3 entdeckt. Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit belegen, dass TIM-3 nicht nur von CD4+ Th-Zellen, sondern auch von CD8+ T-Zellen, gamma/delta-T-Zellen, sowie einigen Makrophagen und der Mehrheit der dendritischen Zellen in der Milz von Mäusen auf der Zelloberfläche exprimiert wird. Die Expression von TIM-3 auf Th-Zellen ist klar mit einem aktivierten Phänotyp assoziiert. TIM-3 wird unter polarisierenden Bedingungen in vitro im Vergleich zu Th2-Zellen bevorzugt, jedoch nicht ausschließlich von Th1-Zellen exprimiert. Erstmals wurde auf Einzelzellebene die Zytokinproduktion TIM-3 exprimierender Th-Zellen untersucht. Die Analyse von Th0-Zellen, welche unter nichtpolarisierenden Bedingungen in vitro hergestellt wurden, ergab keine bevorzugte Produktion von Th1-Zytokinen und keine verminderte Expression von Th2-Zytokinen durch TIM-3 exprimierende Th-Zellen. Aufgrund der in dieser Arbeit erhaltenen Ergebnisse erlaubt die Expression von TIM-3 allein daher nicht die Identifizierung von Th1-Zellen. Nach einer Infektion mit Toxoplasma gondii lag jedoch eine bevorzugte Assoziation zwischen der Expression von TIM-3 und der pathogenspezifischen Produktion von Interferon (IFN)-gamma, Interleukin (IL)-2 und Tumor Nekrose Faktor (TNF)-alpha vor. Somit korreliert die TIM-3 Expression auf Th-Zellen nur unter bestimmten Bedingungen mit einem Th1-Phänotyp. / The cytokines that are produced by T helper (Th) cells are decisive for the initiation, the maintenance and the regulation of immune responses. A simplified classification of Th cells has proven to be useful for the analysis of immune responses: Th1 and Th2. Stably and differentially expressed surface molecules are required for the identification of live Th1- and Th2-cells, their characterisation at the single cell level and the possible modulation of the immune responses that they induce. On the search for such molecules the surface molecule TIM-3 was discovered in collaboration with Millennium Pharmaceuticals. The present work shows that TIM-3 protein is not only expressed on the cell surface by CD4+ Th cells but also by CD8+ T cells and gamma/delta T cells as well as by some macrophages and the majority of the dendritic cells in the murine spleen. TIM-3 expression on Th cells is clearly associated with an activated phenotype. Under polarising conditions in vitro TIM-3 is expressed preferentially albeit not exclusively by Th1 cells compared to Th2 cells. For the first time, the cytokine production of TIM-3 expressing Th cells has been analysed at the single cell level. The analysis of Th0 cells, generated under non-polarising conditions in vitro showed no preferential production of Th1-cytokines and no diminished production of Th2-cytokines by TIM-3 expressing Th-cells. The results obtained in this work lead to the conclusion that expression of TIM-3 does not permit the identification of Th1-cells. However upon infection with Toxoplasma gondii a positive association between the expression of TIM-3 and the pathogen-specific production of Interferon (IFN)-gamma, Interleukin (IL)-2 and Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-alpha was observed. Therefore the expression of TIM-3 on Th-cells only correlates under specific conditions with a Th1-phenotype.

CD4+ T-Helferzellen (Th) entwickeln sich zu Th1 und Th2 Zellen, die nach ihrer Funktion und Zytokinexpression eingeteilt werden. Die differentielle Induktion von Th Zellen, die Th1 oder Th2 Zytokine exprimieren, ist der Schlüssel zur Regulation von Immunantworten bei Infektionskrankheiten, Allergien und Autoimmunerkrankungen. Daher können stabil exprimierte Oberflächenmoleküle, die spezifisch für die funktionell unterschiedlichen Th Zellen sind, von besonderer Bedeutung für die Analyse und selektive funktionelle Modulation von Th Subtypen sein und erlauben es neue therapeutische Strategien für die Behandlung von allergischen und Autoimmunerkrankungen zu etablieren. TIM-3 wurde kürzlich identifiziert als ein Molekül, welches selektiv auf der Oberfläche von Th1 Zellen exprimiert wird und welches möglicherweise eine Rolle bei der Induktion von Autoimmunerkrankungen spielt. Um monoklonale Antikörper gegen humanes TIM-3 zu produzieren, wurde die humane TIM-3 cDNA von in vitro generierten dendritischen Zellen kloniert. Der extrazelluläre Teil des Gens wurde in den prokaryotischen Expressionsvektor pQE100S insertiert und in E.coli BL21(DE3) exprimiert. Die gesamte codierende Sequenz wurde in den eukaryotischen Expressionsvektor pIRES2EGFP subkloniert und auf der Oberfläche von Säugetierzellen exprimiert. Stabile Transfektanten der CHO-K1 und HEK293 Zelllinie wurde etabliert. Die Balb/c Mäuse wurden mit löslichem und unlöslichem rekombinanten humanem TIM-3 sowie mit stabilen Transfektanten für humanes TIM-3 immunisiert. Milzzellen dieser Tiere wurden mit der Myelomzelllinie P3 X 63 Ag8.653 fusioniert. Die entwickelten Hybridome wurden im ELISA und mittels FACS auf Spezifität gegen humanes TIM-3 hin untersucht. Ein Klon der generierten Hybridome war positiv im ELISA zeigte jedoch kein Signal gegen TIM-3 auf der Oberfläche von Zellen. / CD4+ T helper (Th) cells develop into effector Th1 and Th2 cells, which are frequently categorized according to their function and cytokine expression. The differential induction of Th cells expressing Th1 or Th2 cytokines is key to the regulation of immune responses by infectious diseases, allergies and autoimmnune diseases. Thus, stably expressed surface molecules, significant for functionally different types of Th cells could be of utmost importance for the analysis and selective functional modulation of Th subsets and provide new therapeutic strategies for the trestment of allergic or autoimmune diseases. TIM-3 was recently identified as a molecule that is selectively expressed on the surface of Th1 cells and that may have a role in the induction of autoimmune disease. To produce monoclonal antibody of human TIM-3, the human TIM-3 cDNA was cloned from in vitro generated dendritic cells. The extracellular domain of human TIM-3 was inserted into prokaryotic expression vector pQE100S and expressed in E.coli BL21(DE3). The whole coding region was subcloned into eukaryotic expression vector pIRES2EGFP and expressed on the surface of mammalian cells. The stable transfectants of CHO-K1 and HEK-293 cell line was established. The BALB/c mice were immunized with soluble and insoluble recombinant human TIM-3 and also with stable transfectants. Splenocytes were fused with P3 X 63 Ag8.653 myeloma cells. The generated hybridomas were tested in ELISA and FACS for specificity against human TIM-3. A generated clone was positive in ELISA but did not respond to the TIM-3 molecule on the cell surface.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccination is recommended for individuals with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection given their shared risk factors and increased liver-related morbidity and mortality upon super-infection. Vaccine responses in this setting are often blunted, with poor response rates to HBV vaccinations in chronically HCV-infected individuals compared to healthy subjects. In this study, we investigated the role of T cell immunoglobulin mucin domain-3 (Tim-3)-mediated immune regulation in HBV vaccine responses during HCV infection. We found that Tim-3, a marker for T cell exhaustion, was over-expressed on monocytes, leading to a differential regulation of IL-12/IL-23 production which in turn TH17 cell accumulation, in HCV-infected HBV vaccine non-responders compared to HCV-infected HBV vaccine responders or healthy subjects (HS). Importantly, ex vivo blockade of Tim-3 signaling corrected the imbalance of IL-12/IL-23 as well as the IL-17 bias observed in HBV vaccine non-responders during HCV infection. These results suggest that Tim-3-mediated dysregulation of innate to adaptive immune responses is involved in HBV vaccine failure in individuals with chronic HCV infection, raising the possibility that blocking this negative signaling pathway might improve the success rate of HBV immunization in the setting of chronic viral infection.