This dissertation shows the properties of lithium niobate and lithium tantalate as a promising substrate for III-nitrides, addresses several problems of integrating compound semiconductor materials on LN and LT. It also suggests some solutions of the addressed problems, including furnace anneals at high temperature. While this furnace anneal improved surface smoothness and III-nitride film adhesion, it also caused the repolarization on the congruent LN (48.39 mole % of Li2O) samples. However, the repolarization was not developed in the stoichiometric LN (49.9 mole % of Li2O) samples during the identical thermal treatment. Also, the structural quality of GaN epitaxial layers showed slight improvement when grown on LT substrates over LN substrates. Conventional epitaxial growth technologies were adapted and modified to implement a successful AlGaN/GaN heterostructure on LN (LT). The heterostructure were analyzed to verify the electrical and material properties using several characterization techniques. Finally, it demonstrates AlGaN/GaN-based HEMT devices on ferroelectric materials that will allow the future development of the multifunctional electrical and optical applications.

This study was divided into two main parts as there were two kind of films studied. The method of deposition, pulsed laser ablation, was common to both SrBi₂Ta₂O₉ and TiO₂ films. The methods of investigations were also the same. There is an important race for the development of a practical ferroelectric memory. Among ferroelectrics that have attracted attention are the novel compounds with the Aurivillius layered structure. Ferroelectric films of SrBi₂Ta₂O₉, seem to have promising properties, low fatigue and good hysteresis. In this thesis, structure and crystal vibrations in the films were investigated with Raman scattering, infrared absorption, and x-ray diffraction. Similar studies were carried out on powders and crystals of these materials also. The results obtained prove that the films have the orthorhombic SrBi₂Ta₂O₉, structure, and the Raman and IR measurements (the first reported for SBT films) are demonstrated to provide valuable tools for optimizing the deposition process. TiO₂ is another important material in the domain of thin films. This work was undertaken to study its deposition with laser ablation. The TiO₂ films deposited are very unusual; we discovered that they contain the rare brookite phase. This is the first time that brookite has been obtained in laser-ablation-deposited films. This opens up a new area in thin film development with new potential applications. The absorption edge of brookite was measured, using natural crystals. The optical bandgap was found to be lower than the bandgaps of the rutile and anatase forms of TiO₂, in contradiction of a recent theoretical calculation. / Master of Science

O processamento em alta pressão é um método alternativo para a produção de materiais cerâmicos. Neste trabalho, pressões na ordem de 7,7 GPa e 2,5 GPa foram aplicadas em amostras, em diferentes temperaturas, que foram colocadas em uma célula de reação específica, gerando diferentes efeitos na formação de fases. A composição de fases foi analisada por difração de raios X e a evolução microestrutural, associada ao processamento em alta pressão, foi investigada por microscopia eletrônica por varredura em associação com a espectroscopia por dispersão de energia. Um analisador de resposta de frequência foi utilizado para obter as curvas ferroelétricas por espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica. A utilização de alta pressão (2,5 GPa) possibilitou a obtenção de amostras de SrBi2Ta2O9 monofásicas com elevada densidade relativa, acima de 93%, após sinterização a uma temperatura de 900 °C. Essa temperatura é inferior às usualmente necessárias para obter alta densificação utilizando métodos convencionais de sinterização. Além disso, as amostras processadas em alta pressão apresentaram uma resposta dielétrica similar às amostras de SrBi2Ta2O9 sinterizadas por processos convencionais em temperaturas acima de 1000 ºC. / High-pressure processing is a very attractive approach for the production of ceramic materials. In this work, pressures about 7.7 GPa and 2.5 GPa were applied in SrBi2Ta2O9 samples at different temperatures placed in a specific reaction cell. X-ray diffraction was used to identify the different phases produced as a function of the processing conditions. The microstructural evolution, associated to the high-pressure processing, was investigated by scanning electron microscopy in association with energy dispersive spectroscopy. Frequency response analysis was used to obtain the ferroelectric curves by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. A highly densified (> 93% of theoretical density) single-phase (SrBi2Ta2O9) sample was obtained after processing at 2.5 GPa and 900 ºC. This temperature is lower than those necessary to obtain high densification, when conventional sintering processes are employed. In addition, the samples produced by high pressure processing showed a dielectric response similar to SrBi2Ta2O9 samples sintered by conventional processes at temperatures above 1000 ºC.

O processamento em alta pressão é um método alternativo para a produção de materiais cerâmicos. Neste trabalho, pressões na ordem de 7,7 GPa e 2,5 GPa foram aplicadas em amostras, em diferentes temperaturas, que foram colocadas em uma célula de reação específica, gerando diferentes efeitos na formação de fases. A composição de fases foi analisada por difração de raios X e a evolução microestrutural, associada ao processamento em alta pressão, foi investigada por microscopia eletrônica por varredura em associação com a espectroscopia por dispersão de energia. Um analisador de resposta de frequência foi utilizado para obter as curvas ferroelétricas por espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica. A utilização de alta pressão (2,5 GPa) possibilitou a obtenção de amostras de SrBi2Ta2O9 monofásicas com elevada densidade relativa, acima de 93%, após sinterização a uma temperatura de 900 °C. Essa temperatura é inferior às usualmente necessárias para obter alta densificação utilizando métodos convencionais de sinterização. Além disso, as amostras processadas em alta pressão apresentaram uma resposta dielétrica similar às amostras de SrBi2Ta2O9 sinterizadas por processos convencionais em temperaturas acima de 1000 ºC. / High-pressure processing is a very attractive approach for the production of ceramic materials. In this work, pressures about 7.7 GPa and 2.5 GPa were applied in SrBi2Ta2O9 samples at different temperatures placed in a specific reaction cell. X-ray diffraction was used to identify the different phases produced as a function of the processing conditions. The microstructural evolution, associated to the high-pressure processing, was investigated by scanning electron microscopy in association with energy dispersive spectroscopy. Frequency response analysis was used to obtain the ferroelectric curves by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. A highly densified (> 93% of theoretical density) single-phase (SrBi2Ta2O9) sample was obtained after processing at 2.5 GPa and 900 ºC. This temperature is lower than those necessary to obtain high densification, when conventional sintering processes are employed. In addition, the samples produced by high pressure processing showed a dielectric response similar to SrBi2Ta2O9 samples sintered by conventional processes at temperatures above 1000 ºC.

Submitted by Ana Hilda Fonseca (anahilda@ufba.br) on 2014-10-03T15:33:10Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Cristiane.pdf: 9154051 bytes, checksum: aa1fa030f760c514e3fc02dbacb83066 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Fatima Cleômenis Botelho Maria (botelho@ufba.br) on 2014-10-03T15:55:32Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Cristiane.pdf: 9154051 bytes, checksum: aa1fa030f760c514e3fc02dbacb83066 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-03T15:55:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Cristiane.pdf: 9154051 bytes, checksum: aa1fa030f760c514e3fc02dbacb83066 (MD5) / Hidrogênio obtido a partir de água é uma atrativa fonte de energia, visto que pode ser produzido por fontes renováveis e inesgotáveis, e é não poluente. Atualmente, a principal forma de produção de hidrogênio é através da reforma catalítica de gás natural; porém, um novo processo baseado na fotólise da água com auxílio de semicondutores fotocatalíticos é considerado uma alternativa promissora. Diversos materiais já foram testados e outros desenvolvidos com o intuito de aumentar a atividade fotocatalítica na decomposição da água, dentre estes estão o niobato e o tantalato de bismuto (BiNbO4 e BiTaO4), fotocatalíticamente ativos quando irradiados com luz ultravioleta. No entanto, é possível que modificações químicas e nas dimensões de partículas resultem em melhor atividade. O método citrato de precursores poliméricos foi empregado para preparar BiTaO4 e BiNbO4 com a determinação da temperatura ideal de polimerização empregando técnicas termoanalitícas, e um estudo exploratório da temperatura mínima de calcinação foi realizado para obtenção da fase pura desejada, confirmada por difratometria de raios X. A fim de ativar os semicondutores com radiação visível foi realizada a dopagem desses semicondutores com íons de metais de transição, Cr(III) e Mo(V), com concentrações que variaram de 1 – 4% (mol/mol), e um estudo de como as energias de band gap sofreram modificações. Foi observado que a atividade fotocatalítica dos óxidos dopados com molibdênio ou cromo, nas condições avaliadas, é fortemente influenciada pelos teores dos metais e a amostra que apresentou melhor atividade fotocatalítica na geração de hidrogênio foi BiTaO4 dopado com Cr(III) a 2%. Os resultados desse trabalho podem contribuir para o desenvolvimento de sistemas fotoquímicos eficientes empregados na produção fotocatalítica de hidrogênio, utilizando matérias- primas abundantes, renováveis e ambientalmente amigáveis, como água e luz solar. / Hydrogen obtained from water is an attractive energy source, since it can be produced by renewable and inexhaustible primary source, besides it is not pollutant. Nowadays, the principal form of hydrogen production is through catalytic reform of natural gas; although, a new process based on water splitting, with the support of photocatalytic semiconductors, is considered a promising alternative. Many materials have already been tested and developed with the intention of increasing the photocatalytic activity for water splitting, in which are present bismuth niobates and tantalates (BiNbO4 e BiTaO4), photocatalyticly active under UV light irradiation. However, it is possible that chemical modifications and modifications in particle dimensions result in better activity. The citrate method of polymeric precursors was used to prepare BiTaO4 e BiNbO4 with the determination of the ideal temperature of polymerization using thermoanalytical techniques, and an exploratory study of the minimal temperature of calcination was used to obtain a pure desired phase, confirmed by X rays diffractometry. In order to activate the semiconductors with visible radiation, a doping of these semiconductors with ions of transition metals, Cr(III) and Mo(V), with concentrations that ranged from 1 – 4% (mol/mol), and a study of how the band gap energies suffered modifications. The results suggest that the type and the concentration of metal doping exercise great influence on the crystalline structure and morphology of the oxides. While Cr(III) favors a beta phase (triclinic), Mo(V) favors an alpha phase (orthorhombic). Also, the presence of Cr(III) induces the formation of materials with more homogeneous morphologies and size of particles smaller than the obtained in presence of Mo(V). It was observed that a photocatalytic activity of the doped oxides with Molybdenum or Chromium, in the evaluated conditions, is strongly influenced by the metal concentrations and the sample that presented the best photocatalytic activity in hydrogen generation was BiTaO4 doped with Cr(III) at 2%. The experimental ratio H2/CO2, in this case, is much higher than the theoretical, suggesting that the isopropyl alcohol is not completely mineralized. The results of this work can contribute for the development of efficient photochemical systems applied in the photocatalytic production of hydrogen, using raw material in abundance, renewable and environmentally friendly like water and solar light.

O processamento em alta pressão é um método alternativo para a produção de materiais cerâmicos. Neste trabalho, pressões na ordem de 7,7 GPa e 2,5 GPa foram aplicadas em amostras, em diferentes temperaturas, que foram colocadas em uma célula de reação específica, gerando diferentes efeitos na formação de fases. A composição de fases foi analisada por difração de raios X e a evolução microestrutural, associada ao processamento em alta pressão, foi investigada por microscopia eletrônica por varredura em associação com a espectroscopia por dispersão de energia. Um analisador de resposta de frequência foi utilizado para obter as curvas ferroelétricas por espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica. A utilização de alta pressão (2,5 GPa) possibilitou a obtenção de amostras de SrBi2Ta2O9 monofásicas com elevada densidade relativa, acima de 93%, após sinterização a uma temperatura de 900 °C. Essa temperatura é inferior às usualmente necessárias para obter alta densificação utilizando métodos convencionais de sinterização. Além disso, as amostras processadas em alta pressão apresentaram uma resposta dielétrica similar às amostras de SrBi2Ta2O9 sinterizadas por processos convencionais em temperaturas acima de 1000 ºC. / High-pressure processing is a very attractive approach for the production of ceramic materials. In this work, pressures about 7.7 GPa and 2.5 GPa were applied in SrBi2Ta2O9 samples at different temperatures placed in a specific reaction cell. X-ray diffraction was used to identify the different phases produced as a function of the processing conditions. The microstructural evolution, associated to the high-pressure processing, was investigated by scanning electron microscopy in association with energy dispersive spectroscopy. Frequency response analysis was used to obtain the ferroelectric curves by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. A highly densified (> 93% of theoretical density) single-phase (SrBi2Ta2O9) sample was obtained after processing at 2.5 GPa and 900 ºC. This temperature is lower than those necessary to obtain high densification, when conventional sintering processes are employed. In addition, the samples produced by high pressure processing showed a dielectric response similar to SrBi2Ta2O9 samples sintered by conventional processes at temperatures above 1000 ºC.

Práce se zabývá fyzikálními vlastnostmi pyroelektrických senzorů a jejich praktickým využitím. Součástí práce je návrh a realizace měřící aparatury, jež bude využita k měření fyzikálních vlastností senzorů. Pro měření signálů pyroelektrického senzoru bude navržen nízkošumový zesilovač. Součástí práce je také návrh a realizace algoritmu pro lokalizaci infračerveného zdroje záření (plamene) v prostoru, na základě vyhodnoceného analogového signálu.

Microwave materials have been widely used in a variety of applications ranging from communication devices to military satellite services, and the study of materials properties at microwave frequencies and the development of functional microwave materials have always been among the most active areas in solid-state physics, materials science, and electrical and electronic engineering. In recent years, the increasing requirements for the development of high speed, high frequency circuits and systems require complete understanding of the properties of materials function at microwave frequencies. Ferroelectric materials usually have high dielectric constants, and their dielectric properties are temperature and electric field dependent. The change in permittivity as a function of electric field is the key to a wide range of applications. Ferroelectric materials can be used in fabrication capacitors for electronic industry because of their high dielectric constants, and this is important in the trend toward miniaturization and high functionality of electronic products. The simple tunable passive component based on ferroelectric films is a varactor which can be made as a planar structure, and electrically tunable microwave integrated circuits using ferroelectric thin films can be developed. Therefore, it is very important to characterize the dielectric constant and tunability of ferroelectric thin films. This thesis shows experimental results for growth, crystalline properties and microwave characterization of Na0.5K0.5NbO3 (NKN), AgTa0.5Nb0.5O3 (ATN), Ba0.5Sr0.5TiO3 (BST) as well as AgTaO3 (ATO), AgNbO3 (ANO) thin films. The films were grown by Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) and rf-magnetron sputtering of a stoichiometric, high density, ceramic NKN, ATN, BST target onto single crystal LaAlO3(LAO), Al2O3 (sapphire), and Nd:YAlO3, and amorphous glass substrates. By x-ray diffractometry, NKN, ATN, BST films on LAO substrates were found to grow epitaxially, whereas films on r-cut sapphire substrates were found to be preferentially (00l) oriented. Coplanar waveguide interdigital capacitor (CPWIDC) structures were fabricated by standard photolithography processing and metal lift-off technique. Microwave properties of the NKN/Sapphire and ATN/Sapphire with CPW structures were characterized using on-wafer microwave measurement technique. Measurement setup is composed of network analyzer, probe station, and microwave G-S-G probes. External electric field through the connection between network analyzer and power supply was applied to measure voltage tunability. Measured S-parameter were used for the calculation of capacitance, loss tanδ, tunability and K-factor. The NKN films interdigital capacitors with 2 μm finger gap on Nd:YAlO3 showed superior performance compared to ATN in the microwave range from 1 to 40 GHz. Within this range, the voltage tunability (40V, 200 kV/cm) was about 29%, loss tangent ∼ 0.13, K-factor = tunability/tanδ from 152% @ 10GHz to 46% @ 40GHz. The microwave performance of ATN film CPWIDC with 2 μm finger gap on sapphire substrate in the microwave range from 1 to 40 GHz showed that frequency dispersion is about 4.3%, voltage tunability was 4.7% @ 20GHz and 200 kV/cm, loss tangent ∼ 0.068 @ 20GHz, K-factor = tunability/tanδ is ranged from 124% @ 10GHz to 35% @ 40GHz. The BST films CPWIDC with 2μmfinger gap on Al2O3 substrate showed frequency dispersion of capacitance in the microwave range from 1 to 40 GHz about 17%, voltage tunability = 1 - C(40V)/C(0) ∼ 22.2%, loss tangent ∼ 0.137 @ 20GHz, and K-factor = tunability/tanδ from 281% @ 10GHz to 95% @ 40GHz. / QC 20101207

Cette thèse décrit les différentes étapes nécessaires à la réalisation d'un détecteur IR pyroélectrique en couches minces de LiTaO3, depuis l'étude matériau aux procédés de la microélectronique. Le premier chapitre reprend le principe de l'effet pyroélectrique dans les détecteurs IR. Les propriétés physiques et chimiques du cristal de LiTaO3 sont données dans le second chapitre. Le troisième chapitre fait l'inventaire des outils et des techniques de dépôts utilisés pour réaliser l'empilement de base du détecteur IR (contact avant/ couche pyroélectrique / contact arrière). Les chapitres suivants sont consacrés aux résultats expérimentaux. Le quatrième et le cinquième chapitres présentent respectivement l'étude matériau des couches minces de dioxyde de ruthénium qui servent de contact arrière et l'étude matériau des couches minces pyroélectriques de LiTaO3. La pulvérisation cathodique RF et la pulvérisation cathodique RF magnétron sont les deux méthodes de dépôt utilisées. L'électrode supérieure est déposée par évaporation thermique pour les plots d'aluminium ou par pulvérisation cathodique RF pour les pistes en NiCr. Les caractérisations diélectriques présentées dans le sixième chapitre ont montré que la présence d'une couche d'accroche de Ru à l'interface substrat électrode enterrée diminue de moitié les pertes dans le diélectrique. Ces caractérisations ont également permis de mettre en évidence l'influence des conditions de dépôt des couches de LiTaO3 sur leurs propriétés diélectriques. Ces tendances sont confortées par les résultats obtenus par des mesures du coefficient pyroélectrique présentées dans le septième chapitre. Ce chapitre met en avant le rôle du contact arrière quant à la présence de charges parasites pouvant se superposer à l'effet pyroélectrique permanent. Pour une cible enrichie en Li, les couches peuvent présenter des coefficients pyroélectriques de 55 µC/cm2K (180 µC/cm2K pour le cristal massif de LiTaO3). Le dernier chapitre est consacré à la réalisation du détecteur pyroélectrique IR (micro-usinage, électronique associée) et à sa réponse en courant.

Les matériaux ferroélectriques sont caractérisés par l'existence d'une polarisation électrique spontanée, dont l'orientation peut être inversée par l'application d'un champ électrique adéquat. Permettant de coder l'information sous la forme d'un domaine ferroélectrique, i.e. une région du matériau avec une certaine orientation de la polarisation, les ferroélectriques ouvrent la voie au stockage de masse de très haute densité (>10 Tbit/in ²). Dans ce contexte, nous avons employé la Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM), un mode particulier de Microscope à Force Atomique (AFM), permettant la manipulation et la détection des domaines ferroélectriques à l'échelle du nanomètre. Avec pour objectif d'étudier les mécanismes de formation des domaines par l'intermédiaire d'une pointe AFM, nos travaux ont mis en valeur la cinétique de croissance des domaines dans des films minces monocristallins de LiTaO3, avec une approche complémentaire de celle thermodynamique, dépendante du champ électrique et soulignant le rôle de l'humidité dans une possible conduction de surface. En parallèle, les films de LiTaO3 ont permis d'appréhender davantage la nature électro-mécanique de la réponse PFM, pour notamment relier l'amplitude du signal mesuré à la géométrie du domaine sous pointe. PFM et domaines ferroélectriques se sont en effet révélés tour à tour, objet d'étude et outil de caractérisation.