The permanent deformation of a pavement due to vehicle load is one of the important factors affecting the design life as well as the maintenance cost of a pavement. For the purpose of obtaining a cost-effective design, it is advisable to predict the traffic-loadinduced permanent pavement deformation. The permanent deformation in pavements (i.e. rutting) can be classified into three categories, including the wearing of the asphalt layers, compaction, and shear deformations. In the present study, discrete element analyses have been performed to predict the permanent deformation of a pavement when subjected to moving wheel loads. Note that the wearing of the asphalt layers has been disregarded. DEM biaxial test simulations have been carried out in terms of both unbonded and bonded granular materials. The typical stress-strain response, as well as the volumetric strain development, have been reproduced, in qualitative agreement with the experimental results. The factors affecting the mechanical behaviour of granular materials have been investigated, e.g. particle stiffness, sample compaction and parallel bond strength. In addition, the elastic properties, initial yield stress, strength parameters and so on have been analysed. These compression tests provided guidance for the selection of the particle parameters for the subsequent pavement simulation. The permanent deformation in unbonded pavements was represented under moving wheel loads, and proved to be qualitatively consistent with the laboratory tests. The initial self-weight stress had a significant effect on rutting. When the initial gravity stress was relatively high, both shakedown and surface ratchetting phenomena were observed for different loading levels. However, the accumulation of permanent deformation was continual for pavements with low gravity stress, even if the wheel pressure was small. Other factors affecting the rutting have been taken into consideration, e.g. specimen preparation, interparticle friction, etc. In the case of the single-layered pavement, permanent deformation ceased after the first wheel pass. Plastic deformation increased with the decrease in the self-weight stress. For the double layered pavement, the permanent deformation continually increased with wheel passes, probably owing to compaction of the bottom unbound layer. The pavement shakedown phenomenon was not observed prior to wheel pass 300. The permanent deformation increased augmentation of wheel pressure as well as decrease in the sample density and upper layer thickness. The residual stresses in both vertical and horizontal directions can be obtained using the measurement circle. For all the pavements in the current simulations, the vertical residual stress is nearly always zero, consistent with the equilibrium condition. In the case of the unbonded pavement, the large horizontal residual stress depends on the high initial gravity stress, instead of high wheel pressure or wheel pass number. For the single-layered pavement, the peak of the horizontal residual stress was observed near the pavement surface. The residual stress rises with the augmentation of the wheel pass number and the wheel pressure. In the double-layered pavement, the residual stresses are discontinuous at the interface between different pavement layers. The peak appears near the pavement surface and increases with the reduction in the upper layer thickness as well as the rise in wheel passes and wheel pressure. Nevertheless, residual stress is not apparent in the granular base. The probability density distribution was investigated in terms of the contact and bond forces. For the normal contact force, a peak generally appeared at small contact forces, followed by a drastic decrease and, after that, the probability density progressively approached zero. For the tangential contact force as well as the bond forces, in general, a peak of the probability distribution was observed at small contact forces, and then a sharp drop followed from the two flanks of the peak point. Finally, there was a gradual decrease until the probability density decayed to zero. The factors, e.g. pavement layer, wheel pass number and wheel pressure, mainly affect the probability distribution of the small contact or bond forces. For both single- and double-layered pavements, the absolute extrema of the bond forces in the top layer increased with the augmentation of the wheel pass number and the wheel pressure. For the unbonded pavement, the sliding contact ratio was studied and it was significantly affected by the pavement layer, initial gravity stress and sample compaction. The distribution of the pavement particle displacements were demonstrated. In the unbonded pavement, factors, such as wheel pressure and initial gravity, not only affect the distribution of the relatively large particle displacements but also increase the magnitude of the particle displacements. The directions of the large displacement vectors are diverse as the large gravity acceleration is assigned to the particles but are almost downward when the self-weight stress is small. In the single- or double layered pavement, factors, such as wheel pass number and wheel pressure, merely increase the values of the particle displacements. The distribution of the displacements is hardly affected. For the single-layered pavement, the large displacements were observed near the pavement surface and their directions are almost contrary to the movement direction of the wheel. In the double-layered pavement, relatively large particle displacements are widely distributed in the pavement. Their directions are in an almost vertical direction.

The increase of road infrastructure around the world involving the traditional hot mix asphalt (HMA) technology and its effects on the environment and health means that serious attention needs to be paid to building more sustainable flexible pavements. Cold bitumen emulsion mixture (CBEM) as an increasingly attractive cold asphalt mixture is therefore becoming an important subject area for study. Despite the efforts applied during the last few decades to enhance and develop CBEM application, certain issues still exist that make it inferior to HMA, resulting in limiting or minimizing its use. However, the enhancement of CBEM for flexible pavements construction, rehabilitation and maintenance is increasingly gaining interest in both pavement engineering industrial and research sectors. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to gain a deep insight and understanding into the impact response of using natural and synthetic fibres as reinforcing materials, on the mechanical properties and water susceptibility of CBEM including indirect tensile stiffness and resistance to rutting, cracking and moisture damage. Four different types of fibres were used: glass as a synthetic fibre, and hemp, jute and coir as natural fibres. Various samples of CBEM, with and without fibres, were fabricated and tested. Traditional hot mix asphalt mixture was also used for comparison. By achieving this aim it is expected that the use of CBEM would increase, allowing such mixtures to be used as structural pavement materials with some confidence. In spite of the quality of an asphalt mix being one of the most important and significant factors that affect the performance of both hot and cold mix flexible pavements, and the high quality mixes are often cost effective as these mixes require less maintenance and increase the service life of the pavements, it is also cost efficient to replace the semi-experimental flexible pavement design methods with fast and powerful software that includes finite element analysis. Several finite element models (FEM) have been developed to simulate the behaviour of hot mix asphalt, but none exists for cold mix asphalt reinforced by natural and synthetic fibres. This study also describes the development of a three-dimensional (3-D), finite element model of flexible pavements made with CBEMs, which has itself been reinforced with natural and synthetic fibres. The 3-D finite element model was employed to predict the viscoelastic and viscoplastic responses of flexible pavements based on CBEM when subjected to different multiple axle loads, bituminous material properties, tyre speeds and temperatures. The pavements were subject to moving and static loading conditions to test for permanent deformation (rutting). The results indicate a significant improvement in the indirect tensile stiffness modulus, for all fibre-reinforced CBEMs, over different curing times. The improved tensile behaviour represents a substantial contribution towards slowing crack propagation in bituminous mixtures, while scanning electron microscopy analysis confirmed the fibre shape and surface roughness characteristics. The improved performance of the reinforced mixtures with both natural and synthetic fibres facilitated a substantially lower permanent deformation than traditional hot and cold mixtures at two different temperatures (45 °C and 60 °C). When using glass and hemp fibres as reinforcing materials, there was a significant improvement in CBEM in terms of water sensitivity. These reinforcing materials can extend the service life of flexible pavements. Finally, the results show that the finite element model can successfully predict rutting of flexible pavements under different temperatures and wheel loading conditions.

This research developed a new methodology and new models for assessing the potential of motorcycle crashes and selecting countermeasures to improve motorcyclist safety in a motorcycle-dominated traffic environment of urban roads. The crash risk models were developed based on discrete choice models and traffic conflict techniques. The innovative features of this research are that the non-lane-based movements of motorcycles were captured to evaluate their contributions to crash risk and a new concept - that of the Conflict Modification Factor (CoMF) - was proposed to use as a surrogate measure to assess the relative contribution of risk factors to crashes. In addition, a methodology was also developed to enhance the existing International Road Assessment Programme (iRAP) star rating system for motorcyclists. The developed models were fitted and validated using data collected from urban roads in the city of Danang in Vietnam. The operating speed, speed difference, traffic density, front distance, longitudinal gap, lateral clearance and road surface condition were found to significantly contribute to motorcycle crash risk and several countermeasures have been consequently identified to improve motorcyclist safety including: installing changeable speed limit signs, installing changeable gap warning signs, installing changeable road surface condition warning signs and providing segregated motorcycle lanes.

Highway engineers have addressed the problem of pavement maintenance by developing remaining life assessment methods based on structural analysis of computer simulations of pavements tested in the field by non-destructive testing devices such as the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD). However the methodologies followed have been shown to be unable to provide accurate solutions without undue reliance on the knowledge of the expert engineer who conducts the analysis. A knowledge-based system (KBS) is proposed to "inject" engineering knowledge into the conventional techniques. It has been established on a systematic basis and seeks to cover the variety of the issues which may be encountered in such systems. In its prototype form the system consists of three parts: 1. The finite element analytical program ROSTRA-1. 2. A deductive database. 3. A back-analysis subsystem. The analytical program carries out the analysis of the pavements tested in the field. The deductive database holds the properties of a variety of paving materials and establishes the analytical model. The back-analysis subsystem seeks to perform the tasks required for the analysis of the FWD deflection bowl. To build this system, the POPLOG-Prolog computer language operated under VAX/VMS was selected to work in connection with the analytical program. An evaluation procedure was carried out to investigate the performance characteristics of the prototype system. The results indicated that the POPLOG-Prolog development environment is not the ideal tool for such an application. In addition, it appears unlikely that there is any other development tool available which is markedly more effective than that used. However it is felt that similar functions to those required by the POPLOG-Prolog environment, may be implemented using conventional programming. To permit this, a logical design of a KBS to conduct this task is presented.

The performance of roads is known to progressively reduce as a result of separate and interactive effects of climate and traffic. Existing decision support tools such as HDM-4, which are widely used to investigate long-term road maintenance strategies, utilise past climate data instead of future climate predictions. Uncertainties inherent in future climate predictions however imply that application of such tools could lead to outputs that are not robust in light of climate change. The objectives of the study were threefold: firstly, to develop a rut depth prediction model that considered potential effects of future climate; secondly, to formulate a framework for quantification of uncertainties; and finally, to demonstrate the application of the tools developed using a case study. The model was developed using data provided by the UK Highways Agency and UK Climate Impacts Programme. The methodology used was based on Bayesian regression. The developed model was found to perform better than the current asphalt surfacing rut depth model implemented in HDM-4 when future climate data was used. It was concluded that probabilistic outputs from the tools developed including deterioration rates, pavement condition and discounted maintenance costs for each maintenance strategy, and future climate and socio-economic scenarios provide a useful decision making framework for considering alternative strategies for road maintenance on the basis of the level of climate change risks that can be tolerated.

No description available.

Flexible pavements are environmentally sensitive elements of infrastructure and their performance can be influenced by climate. Climate change poses a challenge to design and management of flexible pavements in the future. Climate change can occur worldwide and thus all flexible pavements can be exposed to the impact. However, an assessment framework is not available to evaluate the impact of climate change on flexible pavements in terms of performance, maintenance decision-making and the subsequent life-cycle costs (LCC). This research has attempted to develop such a framework. Case studies on six flexible pavement sections from the United States were performed to demonstrate the application of the framework. The framework started with the investigation of climate change using IPCC’s (Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change) climate change projections. Combinations of climate change projections and local historical climate were adopted as climatic inputs for the prediction of pavement performance. The Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) was used for prediction of pavement performance because it can provide reliable performance predictions with consideration of climatic factors. Pavement performance predictions were applied to schedule maintenance interventions. Maintenance effects of treatments were considered in maintenance decision-making. Maintenance effect models of International Roughness Index (IRI) and rutting were validated using pavement condition survey data from Virginia. With selected climate related LCC components, three maintenance interventions were optimised using a genetic algorithm to achieve the minimum LCC. Eventually the outputs of the system including pavement performance, intervention strategies, and LCC can be compared under various climate change and baseline scenarios. Hence, the differences in performance, decision-making, and LCC due to climate change can be derived. The conclusions were drawn based on the scheme of maintenance decision-making. If flexible pavements are not maintained (Alternative 0), an increase in LCC will be incurred by climate change due to an increase in road roughness (IRI). For pavements maintained with strict thresholds (Alternative 1), climate change may lead to a significant reduction in the service life when the maintenance is triggered by climate sensitive distress. However, benefit can be gained from decreasing LCC as the earlier triggered maintenance may result in less average IRI. As a consequence, user costs, which can be associated with IRI, can be reduced. Hence, LCC can be reduced as user costs usually dominate LCC. However, the net present value (NPV) of agency costs can be increased due to the early intervention. For pavements with optimised maintenance (Alternative 2), the LCC is almost unaffected by climate change. However, the type or application time of interventions may need to be changed in order to achieve this. Furthermore, the balance between agency and user costs did not seem to be influenced by climate change for Alternative 2. Agencies should be aware that maintenance optimisation can significantly reduce the LCC and make the best use of treatments to mitigate the effects of climate change on flexible pavements. Pavement maintained with strict triggers may require earlier interventions as a result of climate change but can gain benefit in LCC. However, this indicates that a responsive maintenance regime may not take full advantage of interventions and that maintenance could be planned to be performed earlier in order to achieve minimised LCC. Due to climate change, road users may spend more on fuels, lubricants and tyre wear on flexible pavement sections that do not receive any maintenance treatments.

By 1855, most Maori still lived in a tribal setting, with little official Pakeha interference. This would have been as they expected, exercising their tino rangatiratanga, the chiefly rights guaranteed by the Treaty of Waitangi. However, their world was changing. In an effort to gain Pakeha goods, many Maori had entered the market economy. Most had converted to Christianity. Many could read and write. Some had sold land to accommodate the increasing numbers of Pakeha settlers. These trends gratified the government. It envisaged a New Zealand society dominated by Pakeha, in which European mores would be norm, and where its sovereignty, gained through the Treaty, would be substantive rather than nominal. At this time, the government pursued the policy of iwi kotahi (one people) or "amalgamation". This policy included the aim of elevating Maori socially and economically by extending to them the benefits of European civilisation. It sought too to encourage Maori to give up their "waste" lands for Pakeha settlement and for Maori to accept the rule of English law, and government authority. Ultimately the two races would become one society- a Pakeha-style society. The government used newspapers for disseminating its message to Maori, publishing the bi-lingual Maori Messenger-Te Karere Maori from January 1855 to September 1863. This thesis investigates the government�s newspaper, plus other Maori language newspapers appearing within the period, printed by government agents, evangelical Pakeha, the Wesleyan Church, and the rival Maori government, the Kingitanga. The thesis not only looks at the impact of newspapers upon Maori society and politics at this time, but also how the newspapers portrayed the major social and political issues to Maori, including the first Taranaki War, the Kohimarama Conference, and the impending all-out war with the Kingitanga in Waikato. Using the newspapers as its major source, this thesis seeks to show how Maori might have understood the issues, and where possible, to allow them to respond in their own voices. We are fortunate that for almost a year the Kingitanga was able to publish its own views in Te Hokioi, thus allowing the anti-government Maori voice to articulate its stand. However, Maori opinion was hardly unitary. The Pakeha-run Maori language newspapers, through reports, reported speeches, and their corresponence columns, provide another set of Maori opinions, which show a variety of opinions on political and social issues. Many histories of this period focus on the tensions and conflicts between Crown and Maori, thus marginalising pro-government Maori, the waverers, and those who merely wanted to keep trouble from their door. This thesis endeavours to illuminate the whole colonial discourse as it appeared in the Maori language newspapers, providing as wide a range of opinions as possible.

The purpose of this dissertation is a study of Korean evidentiality on the basis of presuppositional analysis. My claim is that Korean evidentiality can be accounted for under the binding theory of presupposition (Asher & Lascarides 1998; 2003; Asher 2000). The proposal I motivate in this dissertation is that interpretations of Korean evidentials can be handled using the same mechanism which resolves anaphoric expressions.Dynamic Semantics such as DRT and SDRT give a contribution to account for phenomena like anaphora bridging, presupposition, and accomodation bythe update procedure of the discourse structure. I investigate Korean evidentials by examining their distributions and functions in Korean grammar and specifying the types of information source in Korean evidential system. In particular,there are three evidential types in Korean: Direct te, Reportative tay, Inference ci. I propose that the Korean evidential system corresponds to B-1 system in Aikhenvald (2004). I also give an analysis of the intonation phrase of utterances featuring Korean evidentials with the autosegmental-metrical model of intonational phonology. Moreover, I argue that Korean evidentials are presupposition triggers. To verify my claim, I provide various tests such as negation, challengeability and the interrogative flip. All the tests support for classifying Korean evidentials as one category. I also review and compare three different theoretical frameworks: modal, illocutionary and presuppositional analysis. I reject a modal analysis and an illocutionary analysis and employ a presuppositional analysis for Korean evidentiality.I propose that Korean evidentiality can be explained in terms of SDRT(Asher & Lascarides 1998; 2003). Asher & Lascarides (1998) regard presupposition resolution as an integrated part of the task of building discourse relations. I also show that the speaker-dependency of evidentiality is explicitly associated with characteristics of indexicals. Just as in the line of work stemming from Hunter & Asher (2005), I demonstrated that Korean evidentials are anaphorically resolved by the extra-linguistic context as well as by the linguistic context. / text

Urban VANET (Vehicular Ad hoc NETworks) performance optimization concerns the improvement of wireless signal quality between two arbitrary selected nodes moving within along city streets. It includes three procedures: VANET architecture modeling; wireless signal simulation; and signal quality optimization techniques. The first procedure converts real-world map data into a network graph according to the requirement of the optimization algorithm. The second step analyzes a communication route between two network nodes and calculates received signal quality with the information provided by the network model. The final operation optimizes the signal quality to an expected level by choosing appropriate communication route between two wireless nodes. In this thesis, three optimization techniques are presented: EP (Evolutionary Programming), SG (Stochastic Geometry) and SW (Small World). EP is a widely applied optimization strategy based on Darwin’s natural selection and evolution theory. It is effective with an enormous number of data support, and it can provide detailed route information. However, it requires enough time to evolve to an optimal solution. SG is a statistical tool to analyze points’ distribution within a multi-dimensional space, and it was recently applied on wireless network analysis. Given the distribution characteristics of an urban area, SG can calculate average data loss rate of a communication route. However, it cannot provide detailed route information. SW is a widely accepted model to represent people’s relationship in social networks, and it can be used in VANET analysis. SW provides a simplified network architecture compared with EP an SG. However, it requests additional long-range communication equipment and consumes more energy. The thesis is divided into three parts. Chapter 1 introduces the history of VANET and its architecture (in this research, it is a combination of Ad hoc network and WSN (Wireless Sensor Network)). Chapter 2 and 3 presents literature review of EP and SG. Chapter 4, 5, and 6 discusses how to implement EP, SG and SW on Boston VANET. At the end of each chapter, a conclusion is presented and a discussion on the author’s contribution is given.