La localisation de la déformation est un facteur essentiel à l’existence de la tectonique des plaques. Cependant, elle est le résultat d’interactions non-linéaires qui relient entre elles différentes échelles spatiales et temporelles que nous ne savons pas encore capturer dans un modèle rhéologique unique. Ce travail de thèse tente de combler en partie la fracture entre l’échelle pétrologique et celle de la mécanique à l’échelle crustale. Il cherche ainsi à mesurer l’impact des circulations de fluides sur la dynamique et la cinématique des dômes métamorphiques continentaux par le biais de modèles numériques d’échelle crus- tale. Pour répondre à cette question, nous avons cherché à établir un modèle empirique des écoulements de fluide et des interactions fluide-roche valide à l’échelle de la croûte. A cette échelle, il est important de capturer d’une part l’effet des circulations de fluides sur la densité qui détermine les forces de volume disponibles comme moteur de l’exhumation, mais aussi leur capacité à limiter ou accélérer la chute de résistance des bandes de cisaillement qui déterminent les forces de surface ralentissant l’exhumation. Ce modèle empirique est basé sur une observation au premier ordre du comportement métamorphique des roches le long d’un trajet P − T rétrograde : les roches métamorphiques de haut-grade (faciès amphibolite/granulite) sont exhumées vers la surface sans se rétromorphoser, excepté dans les zones où la déformation est localisée. Ce travail consiste donc à paramétrer cette observation de manière à pouvoir l’implémenter dans un code explicite thermomécanique 2D par le biais d’un couplage hydro-thermo-mécanique prenant en compte les échanges d’eau libre/eau liée avec la roche. Il introduit aussi la prise en compte simplifiée de l’hydrothermalisme lors de l’exhumation. Les résultats montrent que cette paramétrisation permet de mieux rendre compte des observations de terrain dans une gamme de paramètres validée par les mesures de laboratoire. Les résultats obtenus en limitant la rétromorphose des roches par la disponibilité de l’eau sont significativement différents de ceux obtenus dans les études publiées qui ne prenaient pas en compte ce paramètre. La thèse démontre notamment qu’il n’y a pas besoin d’hétérogénéités préexistantes pour obtenir des dômes asymétriques. Elle montre aussi que la chimie initiale de la roche peut exacerber ou diminuer la localisation de la déformation liée à la rétromorphose limitée par l’eau et contrôler ainsi la forme des dômes métamorphiques. / Strain localization is essential to the existence of plate tectonic on Earth. Yet, it is the result of non-linear interaction across several temporal and spatial scales and to date no unique rheological model exists that captures the effect of all these interactions at crustal scale. The work presented here is an attempt to fill part of the gap between out- crop scale and crustal scale models, between petrological scale and crustal scale. The central question is how to measure the effects of fluids and fluid-rock interactions on the dynamics and the kinematics of continental metamorphic core complexes by the mean of crustal scale numerical models. To answer this question, we have tried to esta- blish an empirical model of fluid flow and fluid-rock interaction, which could be valid at the scale of the crust. At that specific scale, it is important to capture the effects of free fluids both on the density of rocks, because it determines the body forces that are driving the exhumation of the crust, and on the strength of rocks and particularly on shear zones which constitute the ’hand-break’, the surface tractions, which resist this exhumation. This empirical model is based on a first order observation related to the behaviour of metamorphic rocks along the retrograde P − T path of their exhumation. High-grade metamorphic rocks (amphibolite/granulite) are indeed exhumed to the sur- face with very little retromorphose except those located within the shear bands where deformation localises. This works first consisted in parameterising this observation in a manner that could be implemented into a 2D thermo-mechanical code as an hydro- thermo-mechanical coupling which could account for free-water/rock-water exchange. In second part, a simplified scheme is introduced to account for hydrothermal cooling of the crust in the late stage of exhumation. The results show that this parameterization al- lows to better account for field observation in a range of parameters that are compatible with laboratory experiments. Limiting the retromorphose of rocks by the availability of free water is shown to produce significantly different metamorphic domes kinematics as compared to prior studies. We indeed demonstrate that it is not necessary to introduce heterogeneity in crustal composition to form asymmetric structures but that the effect of water is modulated by the chemistry of the protolith rocks which influences strain localization.

Sous le Chili central et l’ouest de l'Argentine (29°-35°S), la plaque océanique Nazca, en subduction sous la plaque continentale Amérique du Sud, change radicalement de géométrie : inclinée à 30°, puis horizontale, engendrée par la subduction de la chaine de volcans de Juan Fernandez. Le but de mon étude est d'évaluer, la variation de nature et de propriétés physiques de la lithosphère chevauchante entre ces deux régions afin de mieux comprendre (1) sa structure profonde et (2) les liens entre les déformations observées en surface et en profondeur. Pour répondre à cette thématique, j’utilise une approche originale couplant la sismologie, la thermométrie, et la pétrologie. Je montre ainsi des images 3-D de tomographie sismique les plus complètes de cette région par rapport aux études précédentes, qui intègrent (1) de nombreuses données sismiques provenant de plusieurs catalogues, (2) un réseau de stations sismiques plus dense permettant de mieux imager la zone de subduction. J’apporte la preuve que la plaque en subduction se déshydrate dans deux régions distinctes : (1) le coin mantellique, et (2) le long de la ride subduite avant que celle-ci ne replonge plus profondément dans le manteau. La croûte continentale au-dessus du flat slab possède des propriétés sismiques très hétérogènes en relation avec des structures de déformation profondes et des domaines géologiques spécifiques. La croûte chevauchante d’avant-arc, au-dessus du flat slab, est décrite par des propriétés sismiques inhabituelles, liées à la géométrie particulière du slab en profondeur, et/ou liées aux effets du séisme de 1997 de Punitaqui (Mw 7.1). Mes résultats, confirmant les études antérieures, montrent que : - le bloc Cuyania situé plus à l’est, dans la zone d’arrière-arc est plus mafique et contient une croûte inférieure éclogitisée ; quant à, la croûte continentale inférieure sous l’arc Andin, est épaisse et non-éclogitisée, décrivant surement le bloc felsique de Chilenia. / Beneath central Chile and western Argentina, the oceanic Nazca slab drastically changes geometry from horizontal to dipping at an angle of 30°, and correlates with the subduction of the Juan Fernandez seamount ridge. The aim of our study is to assess, using a thermo-petrological-seismological approach, the differences of the overriding lithosphere between these two regions, in order to better understand the deep structure of the continental lithosphere above the flat slab, and the links between the deformations at the surface and at depth. We show the most complete regional 3-D seismic tomography images of this region, whereby, in comparison to previous studies, we use (1) a much larger seismic dataset compiled from several short-term seismic catalogs, (2) a much denser seismic station network which enables us to resolve better the subduction zone. We show significant seismic differences between the flat and normal subduction zones. As expected, the flat slab region is impacted by colder temperatures, and therefore by faster seismic velocities and more intense seismic activity, compared to the normal slab region. We show evidence that the flat slab dehydrates within the mantle wedge, but also along the subducting ridge prior to re-subducting. The forearc crust above the flat slab is described by unusual seismic properties, correlated to the slab geometry at depth, and/or, to the aftershock effects of the 1997 Mw 7.1 Punitaqui earthquake which occurred two years before the recording of our events. The continental crust above the flat slab has very heterogeneous seismic properties which correlate with important deformation structures and geological terranes at the surface. We confirm previous studies that have shown that the thick lower crust of the present day Andean arc is non-eclogitized and maybe representing the felsic Chilenia terrane, whereas to the east, the Cuyania terrane in the backarc is more mafic and contains an eclogitized lower crust.

Ce travail de thèse s’inscrit dans la cadre d’un projet ANR inter-Carnot « ReMaPoDe (Reliability Management of Power Devices) ». L’objectif général du projet est de réaliser un dispositif permettant d’évaluer en temps réel l’état de vieillissement d’un assemblage de puissance embarqué par le suivi de son état thermique et mécanique pendant son fonctionnement. L’essentiel du travail présenté dans ce mémoire consiste à mettre en évidence la relation entre le vieillissement mécanique d’un assemblage de puissance et les dérives électriques qui peuvent être observées. En outre, compte tenu des problèmes thermiques liés aux applications embarquées, la caractéristique électrique choisie comme indicateur doit être rendue indépendante des effets de la température. Ainsi, après un état de l’art consacré à la présentation des différents types de vieillissement et aux défaillances rencontrées dans les assemblages de puissance, nous distinguerons différentes caractéristiques électriques qui semblent prometteuses pour effectuer le suivi en temps réel de l’état de vieillissement mécanique d’un assemblage de puissance et ce malgré des variations de température ambiante et le vieillissement de certains matériaux constituant l’assemblage / This work is part of an inter-Carnot ANR project "ReMaPoDe (Reliability Management of Power Devices)." The overall project objective is to provide a device to evaluate the real-time status of ageing of a power assembly by monitoring its thermal and mechanical states during operation. Most of the work presented in this thesis consists in highlighting the relationship between the assembly mechanical ageing and the observed electrical evolution. Moreover, due to the thermal problems related to embedded applications, the electrical characteristic chosen as an indicator must allowed to overcome the effects of temperature. Consequently, following a state of the art dedicated to the presentation of different types of ageing and failures encountered in power assemblies, we will distinguish different electrical characteristics that seem promising to monitor in real time the mechanical ageing state of a power device assembly in spite of ambient temperature variations and the ageing of some materials constituting the assembly

Continental rifting is an important geodynamic process during which the Earth's outer-most rigid shell undergoes continuous stretching resulting in continental break-up and theformation of new oceanic basins. The East African Rift System, which has two continentalsegments comprising largely of the East African Rift (EAR) to the West and the easternmostsegment Madagascar, is the largest narrow rift on Earth. However, the driving mechanismsof continental rifting remain poorly understood due to a lack of numerical infrastructure tosimulate rifting, the lack of knowledge of the underlying mantle dynamics, and poor knowl-edge of mantle rheology. Here, we use state-of-art computational modeling of the upper660 km of the Earth to: 1) provide a better understanding of mantle flow patterns and themantle rheology beneath Madagascar, 2) to elucidate the main driving forces of observedpresent-day∼E-W opening in the EAR, and 3) to investigate the role of multiple plumesor a superplume in driving surface deformation in the EAR. In chapter 1, we simulate EdgeDriven convection (EDC), constrained by a lithospheric thickness model beneath Madagas-car. The mantle flow associated with the EDC is used to calculate induced olivine aggregates'Lattice Preferred Orientation (LPO), known as seismic anisotropy. The predicted LPO isthen used to calculate synthetic seismic anisotropy, which were compared with observationsacross the island. Through a series of comparisons, we found that asthenospheric flow result-ing from undulations in lithospheric thickness variations is the dominant source of the seismicanisotropy, but fossilized structures from an ancient shear zone may play a role in southern Madagascar. Our results suggest that the rheological conditions needed for the formationof seismic anisotropy, dislocation creep, dominates the upper asthenosphere beneath Mada-gascar and likely other continental regions. In chapter 2, we use a 3D numerical model ofthe lithosphere-asthenosphere system to simulate instantaneous lithospheric deformation inthe EAR and surroundings. We test the hypothesis that the∼E-W extension of the EAR isdriven by large scale forces arising from topography and internal density gradients, known aslithospheric buoyancy forces. We calculate surface deformation solely driven by lithosphericbuoyancy forces and compare them with surface velocity observations. The lithosphericbuoyancy forces are implemented by imposing observed topography at the model surfaceand lateral density variations in the crust and mantle down to a compensation depth of 100km. Our results indicate that the large-scale∼E-W extension across East Africa is driven bylithospheric buoyancy forces, but not along-rift surface motions in deforming zones. In chap-ter 3, we test the hypothesis that the anomalous northward rift-parallel deformation observedin the deforming zones of the EAR is driven by viscous coupling between the lithosphereand deep upwelling mantle material, known as a superplume, flowing northward. We testtwo end-member plume models including a multiple plumes model simulated using high res-olution shear wave tomography-derived thermal anomaly and a superplume model (Africansuperplume) simulated by imposing a northward mantle-wind on the multiple plumes model.Our results suggest that the horizontal tractions from northward mantle flow associated withthe African Superplume is needed to explain observations of rift-parallel surface motions indeforming zones from GNSS/GPS data and northward oriented seismic anisotropy beneaththe EAR. Overall, this work yields a better understanding of the geodynamics of Africa. / Doctor of Philosophy / Continental rifting is an important geodynamic process during which the Earth's outer-most rigid shell undergoes continuous stretching resulting in continental break-up and theformation of new oceanic basins. The East African Rift System, which has two continentalsegments comprising largely of the East African Rift (EAR) to the West and the easternmostsegment Madagascar, is the largest narrow rift on Earth. However, the driving mechanismsof continental rifting remain poorly understood due to a lack of numerical infrastructure tosimulate rifting, the lack of knowledge of the underlying mantle dynamics, and poor knowl-edge of mantle rheology. Here, we use state-of-art computational modeling of the upper660 km of the Earth to: 1) provide a better understanding of mantle flow patterns and themantle rheology beneath Madagascar, 2) to elucidate the main driving forces of observedpresent-day∼E-W opening in the EAR, and 3) to investigate the role of multiple plumesor a superplume in driving surface deformation in the EAR. In chapter 1, we simulate EdgeDriven convection (EDC), constrained by a lithospheric thickness model beneath Madagas-car. The mantle flow associated with the EDC is used to calculate induced olivine aggregates'Lattice Preferred Orientation (LPO), known as seismic anisotropy. The predicted LPO isthen used to calculate synthetic seismic anisotropy, which were compared with observationsacross the island. Through a series of comparisons, we found that asthenospheric flow result-ing from undulations in lithospheric thickness variations is the dominant source of the seismicanisotropy, but fossilized structures from an ancient shear zone may play a role in southern Madagascar. Our results suggest that the rheological conditions needed for the formationof seismic anisotropy, dislocation creep, dominates the upper asthenosphere beneath Mada-gascar and likely other continental regions. In chapter 2, we use a 3D numerical model ofthe lithosphere-asthenosphere system to simulate instantaneous lithospheric deformation inthe EAR and surroundings. We test the hypothesis that the∼E-W extension of the EAR isdriven by large scale forces arising from topography and internal density gradients, known aslithospheric buoyancy forces. We calculate surface deformation solely driven by lithosphericbuoyancy forces and compare them with surface velocity observations. The lithosphericbuoyancy forces are implemented by imposing observed topography at the model surfaceand lateral density variations in the crust and mantle down to a compensation depth of 100km. Our results indicate that the large-scale∼E-W extension across East Africa is driven bylithospheric buoyancy forces, but not along-rift surface motions in deforming zones. In chap-ter 3, we test the hypothesis that the anomalous northward rift-parallel deformation observedin the deforming zones of the EAR is driven by viscous coupling between the lithosphereand deep upwelling mantle material, known as a superplume, flowing northward. We testtwo end-member plume models including a multiple plumes model simulated using high res-olution shear wave tomography-derived thermal anomaly and a superplume model (Africansuperplume) simulated by imposing a northward mantle-wind on the multiple plumes model.Our results suggest that the horizontal tractions from northward mantle flow associated withthe African Superplume is needed to explain observations of rift-parallel surface motions indeforming zones from GNSS/GPS data and northward oriented seismic anisotropy beneaththe EAR. Overall, this work yields a better understanding of the geodynamics of Africa.

With continued feature size reduction in microelectronics and with more than a billion transistors on a single integrated circuit (IC), on-chip interconnection has become a challenge in terms of processing-, electrical-, thermal-, and mechanical perspective. Today’s high-performance ICs have on-chip back-end-of-line (BEOL) layers that consist of copper traces and vias interspersed with low-k dielectric materials. These layers have thicknesses in the range of 100 nm near the transistors and 1000 nm away from the transistors close to the solder bumps. In such BEOL layered stacks, cracking and/or delamination is a common failure mode due to the low mechanical and adhesive strength of the dielectric materials as well as due to high thermally-induced stresses. However, there are no available cohesive zone models and parameters to study such interfacial cracks in sub-micron thick microelectronic layers. This work focuses on developing framework based on cohesive zone modeling approach to study interfacial delamination in sub-micron thick layers. Such a framework is then successfully applied to predict microelectronic device reliability. As intentionally creating pre-fabricated cracks in such interfaces is difficult, this work examines a combination of four-point bend and double-cantilever beam tests to create initial cracks and to develop cohesive zone parameters over a range of mode-mixity. Similarly, a combination of four-point bend and end-notch flexure tests is used to cover additional range of mode-mixity. In these tests, silicon wafers obtained from wafer foundry are used for experimental characterization. The developed parameters are then used in actual microelectronic device to predict the onset and propagation of crack, and the results from such predictions are successfully validated with experimental data. In addition, nanoindenter-based shear test technique designed specifically for this study is demonstrated. The new test technique can address different mode mixities compared to the other interfacial fracture characterization tests, is sensitive to capture the change in fracture parameter due to changes in local trace pattern variations around the vicinity of bump and the test mimics the forces experienced by the bump during flip-chip assembly reflow process. Through this experimental and theoretical modeling research, guidelines are also developed for the reliable design of BEOL stacks for current and next-generation microelectronic devices.

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