En quelques années, l'efficacité des cellules solaires à base de Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) est passée de 20% à 22.6%. La rapidité de ce développement montre que le CIGS est un matériaux idéal pour les technologies solaires en couches minces. Pourtant, le coût de production cette technologie doit encore être abaissé pour une meilleure compétitivité. La fabrication d'un module avec une couche CIGS plus fine permettrait d'augmenter la production d'une usine et de réduire sa consommation en métaux. Ce travail de thèse vise à réduire l'épaisseur du CIGS d'un standard de 2.0-2.5 µm à une épaisseur inférieure à 500 nm sans altérer les performances des cellules. Cependant, comme rapporté dans la littérature, nous avons observé une diminution des rendements, ce que nous avons analysé en détail en comparant simulations et caractérisations d'échantillons. Celle-ci est causée à la fois par une faible absorption de la lumière dans la couche de CIGS et par un impact important du contact arrière (fortes recombinaisons et faible réflectivité). Pour dépasser ces limites, nous démontrons à la fois théoriquement et expérimentalement que le contact arrière en molybdène peut être remplacé par un oxyde transparent conducteur couplé à un miroir métallique. Nous obtenons de cette manière de meilleurs rendements de cellules. Pour atteindre ce résultat, une optimisation du dépôt de CIGS a été nécessaire. De plus, nous prouvons qu'une couche d'oxyde perforée, insérée entre le CIGS et le contact arrière, limite les recombinaisons des porteurs de charges et réduit l'influence des courants parallèles. Au final, nous avons fabriqué une cellule avec un rendement de 10.7% sur SnO2:F passivé par Al2O3. / In the past three years, record efficiency of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) based solar cells has improved from 20% up to 22.6%. These results show that CIGS absorber is ideal for thin-film solar cells, even if this technology could be more competitive with a lower manufacture cost. The fabrication of devices with thinner CIGS absorbers is a way to increase the throughput of a factory and to reduce material consumption. This PhD thesis aims to develop cells with a CIGS thickness below 500 nm instead of the conventional 2.0-2.5 µm. However, as reported in the literature, we observed a decrease in cell performance. We carefully analyzed this effect by the comparison between simulations and sample characterizations: it is attributed, on one hand, to a lack of light absorption in the CIGS layer and, on the other hand, to an increased impact of the back-contact (high recombination and low reflectivity). To resolve these problems, we demonstrated theoretically and experimentally that the use of an alternative back-contact, other than molybdenum, such as a transparent conducting oxide coupled with a light reflector, improves the cell efficiency. To achieve this result, an optimization of the CIGS deposition was necessary. Moreover, we proved that a porous oxide layer inserted between the CIGS and the back-contact limits the charge-carrier recombination and removes some parasitic resistance. Finally, an efficiency of 10.7% was achieved for a 480-nm-thick CIGS solar cell with a SnO2:F back-contact passivated with a porous Al2O3 layer.

No description available.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / In this thesis, intrinsic hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon thin films for solar cells application have been deposited by means of the hot – wire chemical vapour deposition (HWCVD) technique and have been characterised for their performance. It is noticed that hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon is similar in some aspects (mainly optical) to its counterpart amorphous silicon actually used as the intrinsic layer in the photovoltaic industry. Substantial differences between the two materials have been found however in their respective structural and electronic properties. We show that hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon retains good absorption coefficients known for amorphous silicon in the visible region. The order improvement and a reduced content of the bonded hydrogen in the films are linked to their good stability. We argue that provided a moderate hydrogen dilution ratio in the monosilane gas and efficient process pressure in the deposition chamber, intrinsic hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon with photosensitivity better than 102 and most importantly resistant to the Staebler Wronski effect (SWE) can be produced. This work explores the optical, structural and electronic properties of this promising material whose study – samples have been exclusively produced in the HWCVD reactors based in the Solar Cells laboratory of the Physics department at the University of the Western Cape. / South Africa

In this thesis a technique that is being used in another area of technology to optimize light reception in a photographic camera was also applied to the dielectric resonator antenna. The technique consisting of the use of thin film to couple the media and camera impedances resulted in a dielectric resonator antenna bandwidth enhancement technique. The bandwidth enhancement technique was found when thin film dielectric layer structure was used to couple the dielectric resonator and its feed mechanism. Remarkable good performance was detected with a coplanar waveguide fed cylindrical dielectric resonator antenna which resulted in an improvement to its fractional bandwidth from 7.41% to 50.85%. Extensive experimental work was undertaken in order to explore the extent offered in bandwidth performance by using thin film dielectric layer structure in the dielectric resonator antenna performance. The experimental tasks were designed in order to investigate the influence of the thin film dielectric layer structure in relation to its size, shape, thickness, position and direction. Experimental results were supported with simulation work with the computer simulation technology microwave studio. The pieces of the material used for undertaking this experimental work were manually handcrafted. Four different dielectric resonator antenna designs were used in order to carry out the experimental work including the coplanar waveguide fed cylindrical dielectric resonator antenna. The other three dielectric resonator antennas were implemented using the same microstrip feed mechanism. Improved performance in bandwidth was achieved for all the designs. Optimization of the incoming signal was observed when a piece of thin film dielectric layer structure was placed in position between the feed mechanism and the dielectric resonator antenna. The optimization was observed as an enhancement in both the return loss level and the bandwidth of work. Different unexpected operational modes from were activated, such modes being called perturbed modes. Two different shapes were used in this project. Cylindrical dielectric resonator antenna (ɛr = 37) from a commercial provider and two novel rectangular dielectric resonator antennas. The novel rectangular dielectric resonator antennas were created with the methodology presented in this thesis. The rectangular dielectric resonator antennas were elaborated with transparent ceramic material (ɛr = 7) and TMM10i (ɛr = 9.8) from the Rogers Corporation company. The bandwidth enhancement technique was tested in novel embedded dielectric resonator antennas. A coplanar waveguide fed embedded cylindrical dielectric resonator antenna achieved a maximum bandwidth enhancement of 156.77% around f = 3.79 GHz with a thin film dielectric layer structure modified rectangular piece on one edge. Escalation to dielectric resonator antenna design at millimeter wave frequencies was achieved by using thin film dielectric layer structure bandwidth enhancement technique and a handcrafted printed circuit board millimeter wave feed mechanism. The millimeter wave feed mechanisms were achieved using a low cost alternative technique conceived as part of this project. Millimeter wave dielectric resonator antennas were implemented using thin film dielectric layers structure. The antennas deliver an adequate performance in bandwidth. The work presented in this thesis demonstrates dielectric resonator antenna simpler geometry, simple couple schemes, small size, low profile, light weight, and ease of excitation and orientation. Other parameters have also been investigated covering reduced complexity, high degree of flexibility, ease of fabrication and the use of low cost technology to escalate to millimeter wave frequencies.

Nous présentons des résultats sur la dynamique des interfaces liquides à différentes échelles. Dans la première partie, nous étudions des systèmes liquides confinés dans le cadre de l'approximation de lubrification. Nous obtenons des résultats analytiques et numériques intéressants sur l'équation des films minces qui régit la dynamique de tels systèmes. Les résultats théoriques sont confrontés avec succès à des experiences de microscopie à force atomique sur des films minces de polymères dans différentes géométries. Nous explorons la physique qui résulte des effets inhérents à la nature des matériaux polymères tels que la viscoélasticité, le glissement aux parois ou encore la dynamique au voisinage de la température de transition vitreuse. Dans la deuxième partie, nous nous intéressons au sillage engendré par le mouvement d'une perturbation à l'interface liquide-air. Motivés par des résultats expérimentaux qui semblent remettre en question la théorie de Kelvin sur le sillage des bateaux, nous montrons que deux angles peuvent être distingués dans le sillage. L'angle que forment les bords du domaine est bien constant, conformément à la théorie de Kelvin, alors que l'angle que décrivent les vagues de plus forte amplitude décroit avec le nombre de Froude. Nous nous penchons également sur les ondes gravito-capillaires et portons un intérêt particulier aux effets de taille finie sur la résistance de vague. Les deux parties peuvent être abordées de manière indépendante. / We present results on the dynamics of liquid interfaces at different scales. In the first part, we study confined liquid systems within the lubrication approximation. We obtain interesting analytical and numerical results on the thin-film equation governing the dynamics of such systems. The theory is successfully confronted to atomic force microscopy experiments on thin polymer films in different geometries. We explore the physics resulting from the intrinsic properties of polymeric materials such as viscoelasticity, slip at the solid- liquid interface as well as the dynamics near the glass transition temperature. In the second part, we tackle the problem of the wake generated by a moving disturbance at the air-water interface. Motivated by experimental results that seem to challenge Kelvin’s century old theory of ship waves, we show that two angles can be distinguished in the wake. The angle delimiting the wake is constant, consistent with Lord Kelvin’s theory, while the angle corresponding to the highest waves decreases as the Froude number is increased. We examine as well the case of capillary-gravity waves and focus in particular on the finite size effects on the wave drag. Both parts can be addressed independently.

In this research, Ni–NiOx–Cr and Ni–NiOx–ZnO–Cr metal-insulator-metal (MIM) junction based tunnel diodes have been investigated for the purpose of a wide-band detector. An MIM diode has a multitude of applications such as harmonic mixers, rectifiers, millimeter wave and infrared detectors. Femtosecond-fast electron transport in MIM tunnel diodes also makes them attractive for energy-harvesting devices. These applications require the tunnel diodes to have high current-asymmetry and non-linear current-voltage behavior at low applied voltages and high frequencies. Asymmetric and non-linear characteristics of Ni–NiOx-Cr MIM tunnel diodes were enhanced in this research by the addition of ZnO as a second insulator layer in the MIM junction to form metal-insulator-insulator-metal (MIIM) structure. Electrical characteristics were studied in a voltage range of for the single-insulator Ni–NiOx–Cr and double-insulator Ni–NiOx–ZnO–Cr tunnel diodes. Since the electrical characteristics of the diode are sensitive to material selection, material arrangement, thickness, deposition techniques and conditions, understanding the diode behavior with respect to these factors is crucial to developing a robust diode structure. Thus, ZnO insulator layer in MIIM junction was deposited by two different techniques: sputtering and atomic layer deposition (ALD). Also, the optical properties were characterized for the sputter deposited NiOx insulator layers by ellipsometry and the impact of annealing was explored for the NiOx optical properties. The Ni–NiOx–Cr MIM tunnel diodes provide low resistance but exhibit a low (~1) current-asymmetry. Asymmetry increased by an order of magnitude in case of Ni–NiOx–ZnO–Cr MIIM tunnel diode. The sensitivity of the MIM and MIIM diodes was 11 V-1 and 16 V-1, respectively. The results suggest that the MIIM diode can provide improved asymmetry at low voltages. The tunneling behavior of the device was also demonstrated in the 4-298K temperature range. It is hypothesized that the improved performance of the bilayer insulator diode is due to resonant tunneling enabled by the second insulator. Finally, the MIM and MIIM devices were investigated for wide-band detection up to 50GHz (RF) and 0.3THz (optical).

No description available.

Thin film Nanocomposite (TFN) membranes are a relatively new class of high-performance semipermeable membranes for Reverse Osmosis (RO) applications. Large scale applications of TFN membranes have not been achieved yet due to the high production cost of the nanoparticles, agglomeration of the nanoparticles in the thin polyamide matrix of the membrane, and leaching out of typically toxic inorganic nanoparticles into the downstream. In this work, these challenges are addressed by incorporation of two different nanofillers: Cellulose NanoCrystals (CNC), and surface functionalized Halloysite NanoTubes (HNT). Amine groups, carboxylic acid groups, and the first generation of poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers were used for functionalization of the HNT. CNC and HNT are environmentally friendly, low/non-toxic, abundant, and inexpensive nanoparticles with a unique size, and chemical properties. TFN membranes were synthesized via in situ interfacial polymerization of m-phenylenediamine (MPD) with trimesoyl chloride (TMC) and the nanoparticles. The control Thin Film Composite (TFC) membranes, and CNC and HNT based TFN membranes were characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and contact angle measurements. The antifouling capacity of CNC based membranes was investigated with a solution of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) as the fouling agent. Also, the leachability of the HNT from the membranes was examined by shaking the membranes in a batch incubator for 48 h, and then tracing the leached out HNT using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Separation characteristics of the membranes were studied by desalination of synthetic brackish water with a cross flow RO filtration system. It was revealed that incorporation of functionalized HNT enhanced the permeate flux without sacrificing the salt rejection (99.1 % ± 0.1 %). Also, incorporation of 0.1% (w/v) CNC doubled the permeate flux (from 30 to 63 L/m2.h at 20 bar) without compromising the salt rejection (97.8%). At the same time, leaching out of HNT from the TFN membranes was decreased as a result of the HNT functionalization and formation of covalent bonds with the TMC. Also, antifouling properties of the CNC-TFN membranes were 11% improved in comparison with control TFC membrane.

Les matériaux ferromagnétiques possèdent la propriété de devenir magnétiques, c’est à dire de s'aimanter, lorsqu'ils sont en présence d'un champ magnétique et de conserver une partie de leur magnétisation lorsque le champ est supprimé. C’est pour cette raison, ces matériaux sont devenus d'usage dans de nombreuses applications industrielles. Le modèle mathématique du micromagnétisme a été introduit par W.F. Brown (voir [11]) pour d'écrire le comportement de l'aimantation dans les matériaux ferromagnétiques depuis les années 40.Pour étudier ce phénomène, on le transforme en un système l'étude de ces équations donnent les informations physiques attendus dans des espaces appropriés. Dans cette thèse on s’est intéressé à des structures minces de films ferromagnétiques. En pratique, une structure mince est un objet tridimensionnel ayant une ou deux directions prépondérantes comme par exemple une plaque, une barre ou un fil. Nous étudions le comportement de l'énergie quand l'épaisseur du film tend vers zéro. Dans le premier travail, nous généralisons un résultat dû à Gioia et James à des dimensions supérieures à 4. Plus précisément, on considère un domaine mince borné ferromagnétique dans R^n, le but est d'étudier les comportements asymptotiques de l'énergie libre du domaine mince ferromagnétique. Dans le deuxième travail, on s'intéresse à une approche dynamique de problème micromagnétisme . On étudie le comportement asymptotique des solutions des équations Landau Lifshitz dans un multi-structure mince ferromagnétique composée de deux films minces orthogonaux d'épaisseur respectif h^a et h^b. On distingue différents régimes: lorsque lim h^a_n/h^b_n in ]0;infty[. On identifie le problème limite et on montre que ce dernier est couplé par une condition de jonction sur l'axe vertical x2, pour tout x2 in] -1/2,1/2[.La troisième partie est liée à ce dernier travail, nous complétons l'étude précédente lorsque lim h^a_n/h^b_n = 0 et +infty (voir [2]). En suite dans la quatrième chapitre, on a étudié des phénomènes de micromagnétisme dans un multi-structure mince: il s'agit d'un ouvert connexe de R3 composé de deux parties ayant un angle etha in ]0; pi[, le but est d'étudier les comportements asymptotiques de l'énergie libre dans ce domaine lorsque l'épaisseur tend vers zéro. Il s'agit d'un problème non convexe et non local (…) / The ferromagnetic materials possess the magnetic property of future, that is to magnetize, when they are in the presence of a magnetic field and to keep a part of their magnetizing when the field is deleted. It is for that reason, these materials became of use in numerous industrial applications (...)

Pour le développement des nœuds technologiques 14 nm et en-deçà, la technologie planaire Fully Depleted Silicon-On-Isolator implémente des sources et drains (S&D) en Si1-xGex épitaxiés pour augmenter la mobilité des trous par induction d'une contrainte compressive dans le canal p-MOS. Le procédé de siliciuration auto-alignée est utilisé pour contacter les S&D avant le dépôt du diélectrique du premier niveau de contact. Cependant, le procédé de germanosiliciuration des S&D reste un défi majeur. En effet, le germanosiliciure de Ni souffre de la partition de Ge et de l'agglomération du film dès 400 °C qui dégradent irréversiblement les performances du transistor. La stabilité morphologique des siliciures de Ni a été considérablement améliorée par l'utilisation d'un alliage Ni1-yPty sur Si. Cependant, pour le système quaternaire Ni-Pt-Si-Ge, ainsi que pour les films ultra-minces de Ni ou Ni1-yPty à fort taux de Pt (> 10 at.%), les réactions à l'état solide sont complexes et leurs études restent rares. Dans ce travail, nous proposons une étude comparative des systèmes Ni/Si0,7Ge0,3 et NiPt(15 at.%)/Si0,7Ge0,3. La discussion est centrée sur les mécanismes de formation et de dégradation intervenant pendant la réaction Ni/Si0,7Ge0,3. Puis, l'impact du Pt sur la séquence de phase et la dégradation a été identifié. Finalement, la comparaison de ces réactions réalisées sur pleine plaque et dans des motifs a permis d'extraire l'impact du confinement. Afin de caractériser ces films très fins, la sonde atomique tomographique a été utilisée pour étudier la redistribution des éléments, ainsi que la diffraction des rayons X pour identifier la phase en présence et la texture du film. / For 14 nm node and beyond, planar Fully Depleted Silicon-On-Isolator (FDSOI) CMOS of STMicroelectronics implements Si1-xGex epitaxial layers in source/drain (S&D) areas to enhance the hole mobility by inducing a compressive stress in the pMOS channel. Salicide process is preformed to contact S&D prior pre-metal dielectric deposition. However, the Nickel based germanosilicidation of S&D remains more than ever a critical challenge. Indeed, Nickel germanosilicide suffers from Ge out-diffusion and film agglomeration from 400 °C which both degrade irreversibly transistor performances. Morphological stability of Ni based silicide has been considerably improved by using Ni1-yPty alloys on Si. Nevertheless, for the quaternary system with Ni-Pt-Ge-Si as well as for ultra-thin Ni or Ni1-yPty films and high Pt content (> 10 at.%), the solid state reactions are complex and remain poorly understood. In this work, we propose a comparative study between Ni/Si0,7Ge0,3 and NiPt(15 at.%)/Si0,7Ge0,3. We focused on the discussion on the formation and degradation phenomena occurring during the Ni/Si0,7Ge0,3 reaction. Then, the impact of Pt on both phase sequence and degradation has been identified. Finally, the comparison between reactions performed on blanket and patterned wafers permit to extract the impact of patterning. To characterize these very thin films, atom probe tomography was performed to study element redistribution, as well as X-rays diffraction to identify phase nature and texture.