Threat assessment and reliable motion-prediction of surrounding vehicles are some of the major challenges encountered in autonomous vehicles' safe decision-making. Predicting a threat in advance can give an autonomous vehicle enough time to avoid crashes or near crash situations. Most vehicles on roads are human-driven, making it challenging to predict their intentions and movements due to inherent uncertainty in their behaviors. Moreover, different driver behaviors pose different kinds of threats. Various driver behavior predictive models have been proposed in the literature for motion prediction. However, these models cannot be trusted entirely due to the human drivers' highly uncertain nature. This thesis proposes a novel trust-based driver behavior prediction and stochastic reachable set threat assessment methodology for various dangerous situations on the road. This trust-based methodology allows autonomous vehicles to quantify the degree of trust in their predictions to generate the probabilistically safest trajectory. This approach can be instrumental in the near-crash scenarios where no collision-free trajectory exists. Three different driving behaviors are considered: Normal, Aggressive, and Drowsy. Hidden Markov Models are used for driver behavior prediction. A "trust" in the detected driver is established by combining four driving features: Longitudinal acceleration, lateral acceleration, lane deviation, and velocity. A stochastic reachable set-based approach is used to model these three different driving behaviors. Two measures of threat are proposed: Current Threat and Short Term Prediction Threat which quantify present and the future probability of a crash. The proposed threat assessment methodology resulted in a lower rate of false positives and negatives. This probabilistic threat assessment methodology is used to address the second challenge in autonomous vehicle safety: crash avoidance decision-making. This thesis presents a fast, proactive decision-making methodology based on Stochastic Model Predictive Control (SMPC). A proactive decision-making approach exploits the surrounding human-driven vehicles' intent to assess the future threat, which helps generate a safe trajectory in advance, unlike reactive decision-making approaches that do not account for the surrounding vehicles' future intent. The crash avoidance problem is formulated as a chance-constrained optimization problem to account for uncertainty in the surrounding vehicle's motion. These chance-constraints always ensure a minimum probabilistic safety of the autonomous vehicle by keeping the probability of crash below a predefined risk parameter. This thesis proposes a tractable and deterministic reformulation of these chance-constraints using convex hull formulation for a fast real-time implementation. The controller's performance is studied for different risk parameters used in the chance-constraint formulation. Simulation results show that the proposed control methodology can avoid crashes in most hazardous situations on the road. / Master of Science / Unexpected road situations frequently arise on the roads which leads to crashes. In an NHTSA study, it was reported that around 94% of car crashes could be attributed to driver errors and misjudgments. This could be attributed to drinking and driving, fatigue, or reckless driving on the roads. Full self-driving cars can significantly reduce the frequency of such accidents. Testing of self-driving cars has recently begun on certain roads, and it is estimated that one in ten cars will be self-driving by the year 2030. This means that these self-driving cars will need to operate in human-driven environments and interact with human-driven vehicles. Therefore, it is crucial for autonomous vehicles to understand the way humans drive on the road to avoid collisions and interact safely with human-driven vehicles on the road. Detecting a threat in advance and generating a safe trajectory for crash avoidance are some of the major challenges faced by autonomous vehicles. We have proposed a reliable decision-making algorithm for crash avoidance in autonomous vehicles. Our framework addresses two core challenges encountered in crash avoidance decision-making in autonomous vehicles: 1. The outside challenge: Reliable motion prediction of surrounding vehicles to continuously assess the threat to the autonomous vehicle. 2. The inside challenge: Generating a safe trajectory for the autonomous vehicle in case of future predicted threat. The outside challenge is to predict the motion of surrounding vehicles. This requires building a reliable model through which future evolution of their position states can be predicted. Building these models is not trivial, as the surrounding vehicles' motion depends on human driver intentions and behaviors, which are highly uncertain. Various driver behavior predictive models have been proposed in the literature. However, most do not quantify trust in their predictions. We have proposed a trust-based driver behavior prediction method which combines all sensor measurements to output the probability (trust value) of a certain driver being "drowsy", "aggressive", or "normal". This method allows the autonomous vehicle to choose how much to trust a particular prediction. Once a picture is painted of surrounding vehicles, we can generate safe trajectories in advance – the inside challenge. Most existing approaches use stochastic optimal control methods, which are computationally expensive and impractical for fast real-time decision-making in crash scenarios. We have proposed a fast, proactive decision-making algorithm to generate crash avoidance trajectories based on Stochastic Model Predictive Control (SMPC). We reformulate the SMPC probabilistic constraints as deterministic constraints using convex hull formulation, allowing for faster real-time implementation. This deterministic SMPC implementation ensures in real-time that the vehicle maintains a minimum probabilistic safety.

The current terrorist threat that Sweden and other countries are facing is far more complex than before. In 2005, the National Centre for Terrorist Threat Assessment (NCT) was established to conduct strategic terrorism threat assessments. Three years later, NCT became a permanent working group staffed with designated employees from three different government authorities; the Swedish Security Service (Säpo), National Defence Radio Establishment (FRA) and the Swedish Armed Forces’ Military Intelligence and Security Directorate (Must).  This study aims at understanding how co-operation is conducted between the designated government authorities within the NCT, when developing strategic threat assessments. The study also examines if today’s cooperation and information exchange is working satisfactorily or if it should be developed, and in that case what obstacles and which success it could have.    The used methodology is based on a qualitative approach, consisting of information collection from both official documents and semi-structured interviews with past and present employees directly and indirectly affiliated with NCT. The information is then analyzed based on the perspectives of co-operation and governance.  The study concludes that the participating authorities, apart from the designated employees, lack full knowledge and understanding of NCTs task, as national coordinating function for strategic terrorism threat assessments. The lack of knowledge and understanding of different government´s tasks lead to work being conducted in silos, which could lead to information is not disseminated to the appropriate recipient.  Due to the complex nature of the current threat, there is a need for involvement of more authorities and organization in NCTs work, in order to enhance the knowledge of the threat and minimize the risk of valuable information loss. The study also displays that NCTs capability to produce long-term assessment and hamper the risk of an “information bubble” can be reduced by decentralized command structure. Finally, this study shows that information exchange between authorities and NCT can be facilitated by common IT-systems, continuous staffing, and co-localization. / Sverige och världen står inför en alltmer komplex hotbild när det kommer till terrorism. För att göra strategiska terrorhotbedömningar, som tillsammans med övriga bedömningar, ligger till grund för den hotnivå som beslutas av Säkerhetspolischefen, så bildas 2005 - Nationellt Centrum för Terrorhotbedömning (NCT). NCT blev en permanent grupp 2009 och består av representanter från tre olika myndigheter – Säkerhetspolisen (Säpo), Försvarsmakten (FM) med Militära underrättelse- och säkerhetstjänsten (Must) och Försvarets Radioanstalt (FRA). Syftet med denna studie har varit att få förståelse för hur samverkan mellan myndigheterna inom NCT fungerar vid framtagning av strategiska terrorhotbedömningar. Denna studie har också sökt svar på om samverkan och informationsdelning fungerar fullt ut idag vid NCT eller om samverkan skulle kunna utvecklas framöver, vilka framgångsfaktorer och hinder det finns för en sådan utveckling. Studien har utgått från en kvalitativ metod där officiella dokument och skrivelser har granskats för att ta reda på hur myndighetssamverkan och myndighetsstyrning regleras i dessa, och hur ansvarsfördelningen ser ut mellan respektive myndighet. Vidare har det genomförts semistrukturerade intervjuer med personer som har en direkt eller indirekt koppling till NCT. Det empiriska underlag som fåtts fram har sedan analyserats tillsammans med utvalda referenser som har koppling till myndighetsstyrning och samverkan. Studiens slutsatser visar att hemmamyndigheterna saknar full kunskap och förståelse för uppgiften som NCT har, att vara den strategiska samordningsfunktionen för terrorhotbedömningar. Avsaknad av kunskap och förståelse för olika myndigheters uppgifter leder till att arbete sker i stuprör, vilket kan leda till att information inte sprids till de som behöver den. För att kunna hantera den komplexa hotbild som Sverige står inför behöver fler myndigheter och organisationer stödja NCT:s arbete, detta för att bredda kunskapen och minska riskerna att information går förlorad. Vidare visar studien att förmågan vid NCT att göra strategiskt långsiktiga bedömningar och motverka att hamna i en ”informationsbubbla”, där man riskerar att göra för kortsiktiga och snäva bedömningar, sker med stöd av en decentraliserad ledningsstruktur. Slutligen visar studien att det som underlättar för informationsdelning mellan myndigheterna och NCT är gemensam sambands och IT-utrustning, kontinuitet på personal med rätt kunskap och att vara samlokaliserade.

<p>The Heimdal Framework presented in this thesis is a step towards an unambiguous framework that reveals the objective strength and weaknesses of the security of components. It provides a way to combine different aspects affecting the security of components - such as category requirements, implemented security functionality and the environment in which it operates - in a modular way, making each module replaceable in the event that a more accurate module is developed. </p><p>The environment is assessed and quantified through a methodology presented as a part of the Heimdal Framework. The result of the evaluation is quantitative data, which can be presented with varying degrees of detail, reflecting the needs of the evaluator. </p><p>The framework is flexible and divides the problem space into smaller, more accomplishable subtasks with the means to focus on specific problems, aspects or system scopes. The evaluation method is focusing on technological components and is based on, but not limited to, the Security Functional Requirements (SFR) of the Common Criteria.</p>

Aquatic invasive species (AIS) are biological pollutants that cause detrimental ecological, economic, and sociological effects on non-native communities. With increasing globalization through maritime trade, coastal ports are vulnerable to AIS introductions transported by commercial vessels. As Cuba’s Port Mariel becomes a competitive transshipment hub within the Caribbean, it is essential to identify the potential threat that AIS may pose with a likely increase in shipping activity. It is equally important to understand the status of established AIS in Cuba and control measures presently being implemented by the country. This information can provide guidance for establishing or improving Cuban AIS preventative and remedial actions. For this study, publically accessible information was used to conduct threat assessments of present and potential AIS in Cuba and to identify feasible international donors of AIS due to trade with Port Mariel. Fifteen species were identified as established Cuban AIS, eight of which were associated with harmful impacts to the environment, economy, and human health. Only one established AIS, Perna viridis (the Asian green mussel), was recorded as having repeated, negative influences in Cuba. Regional trade partners of Port Mariel were identified as the most likely donors of AIS due to ecological similarity and minimal voyage duration between countries. These trade partners also represented the busiest ports and transshipment hubs in the wider Caribbean region and, therefore, could expose Port Mariel to ‘stepping-stone’ invasions. Five species associated with international trade partners were identified as potentially detrimental to Cuba if introduced into Port Mariel. There were no significant differences between the salinity and temperature tolerances of the AIS already established in Cuba and the possible AIS of concern, suggesting that these potential invaders could survive the environmental conditions of Port Mariel and subsequently become established throughout Cuba. The results presented herein are a preliminary assessment of AIS threats in Cuba and emphasize the importance of prioritizing AIS prevention and management. This study also establishes a baseline inventory of potential AIS in Cuba and a methodology that can be followed for future analyses outside of the study region.

Journalism is an ever-changing profession that is right now getting increasingly impacted by advancements in technology. These advancements make it easier, faster, and possibly safer to conduct journalism. At the same time, journalists are subjected to threats, and while some level of safety comes with digital advancements, they might also provide opportunities for reaching and threatening journalists that were not possible just a few years ago. This requires journalists to stay up to date on technological advancements in order to mitigate threats.  This thesis is based on interviews with five journalists whose work put them in or near danger and utilizes an inductive approach to iteratively study the data and analyze it using existing frameworks to categorize tactics used by journalists. This study identifies three larger categories of threats that journalists are subjected to, and the measures taken to defend against these threats with a special focus on the digital technologies at their disposal. It finds that the tactics vary depending on the source of the threats and range from being non-violent, to legitimate threats on journalists’ lives. In response, journalists use tactics to remain under the radar of danger, or to find safety using low-tech tools and to even use digital tools as an opportunity to conduct journalism that would otherwise be out of their reach. The study concludes that rather than categorizing journalists, it is better to categorize their actions in order to see them as changeable and possible to be used as reactions to threats.

The Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area (NRRA), located in Tennessee and Kentucky, has prepared a management plan to include restoration of its mussel fauna to historic levels. Restoration activities include propagation of juvenile mussels and relocation of adults to suitable sites in the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River (BSF) and its tributaries. This study was conducted to identify host fish for Cumberland elktoe (Alasmidonta atropurpurea) and Cumberland bean (Villosa trabalis), to determine suitable juvenile culture conditions for Epioblasma brevidens and V. trabalis, and to locate sites important to future mussel restoration efforts in the NRRA. Host fish identifications and propagation techniques were determined for two of the endangered species in the NRRA, Cumberland elktoe (Alasmidonta atropurpurea) and Cumberland bean (Villosa trabalis). Of seven host species tested, banded sculpin (Cottus carolinae) was the most suitable host fish for propagation of A. atropurpurea. Of five host species tested, fantail darters (Etheostoma flabellare) were the most suitable host fish for propagation of V. trabalis. Culture techniques to raise juvenile mussels in captivity were evaluated, using newly metamorphosed juveniles of V. trabalis and E. brevidens in recirculating systems. No differences in juvenile growth or survival were detected among substrates used (fine sediment, coarse sand, and a mixture of the two). Recirculating system design seemed to affect juvenile growth and survival; however, variable condition of juveniles also seemed to affect results, making it difficult to determine effects from trial treatments. Finally, an assessment of potential sites in the NRRA for restoration activities was conducted using spatial analysis in a geographic information system (GIS) and several measures of conservation value. Mussel restoration sites were assessed for potential threats from adjacent land uses that may negatively affect mussels, including coal mines, oil and gas wells, transportation corridors, agriculture and urban development. Sites were also evaluated on their current conservation value to designate which sites are most important to long-term maintenance of mussel fauna. Several sites were identified that contain relatively few land-use threats, and are appropriate for mussel restoration activities, including Big Island, Station Camp Creek, and Parchcorn Creek sites on the mainstem BSF, as well as sites on Clear Fork and North White Oak Creek. Many of these sites also have high conservation values. Other sites had relatively high land-use threats that need to be addressed before restoration activities take place. Such sites include Leatherwood Ford, Rough Shoals Branch, Blue Heron, and Yamacraw on the mainstem BSF. The dominant threat to most sites came from transportation corridors, whereas some sites in southern and eastern portions of the watershed also were threatened by coal mines, and oil and gas wells. / Master of Science

The Heimdal Framework presented in this thesis is a step towards an unambiguous framework that reveals the objective strength and weaknesses of the security of components. It provides a way to combine different aspects affecting the security of components - such as category requirements, implemented security functionality and the environment in which it operates - in a modular way, making each module replaceable in the event that a more accurate module is developed. The environment is assessed and quantified through a methodology presented as a part of the Heimdal Framework. The result of the evaluation is quantitative data, which can be presented with varying degrees of detail, reflecting the needs of the evaluator. The framework is flexible and divides the problem space into smaller, more accomplishable subtasks with the means to focus on specific problems, aspects or system scopes. The evaluation method is focusing on technological components and is based on, but not limited to, the Security Functional Requirements (SFR) of the Common Criteria.

Falls are responsible for a large proportion of serious injuries and deaths among cyclists [1-4]. A common fall scenario is loss of balance during an emergency braking maneuver to avoid another vehicle [5-7]. Automated Vehicles (AV) have the potential to prevent these critical scenarios between bicycle and cars. However, current Threat Assessment Algorithms (TAA) used by AVs only consider collision avoidance to decide upon safe gaps and decelerations when interacting wih cyclists and do not consider bicycle specific balance-related constraints. To date, no studies have addressed this risk of falls in safety critical scenarios. Yet, given the bicycle dynamics, we hypothesized that the existing TAA may be inaccurate in predicting the threat of cyclist falls and misclassify unsafe interactions. To test this hypothesis, this study developed a simple Newtonian mechanics-based model that calculates the performance of two existing TAAs in four critical scenarios with two road conditions. Tue four scenarios are: (1) a crossing scenario and a bicycle following lead car scenario in which the car either (2) suddenly braked, (3) halted or (4) accelerated from standstill. These scenarios have been identified by bicycle-car conflict studies as common scenarios where the car driver elicits an emergency braking response of the cyclist [8-11] and are illustrated in Figure 1. The two TAAs are Time-to-Collision (TTC) and Headway (H). These TAAs are commonly used by AVs in the four critical scenarios that will be modelled. The two road conditions are a flat dry road and also a downhill wet road, which serves as a worst-case condition for loss of balance during emergency braking [12].

Internet of things (IoT) devices are becoming more prevalent. Due to a rapidly growing market of these appliances, improper security measures lead to an expanding range of attacks. There is a devoir of testing and securing these devices to contribute to a more sustainable society. This thesis has evaluated the security of an IoT-refrigerator by using ethical hacking, where a threat model was produced to identify vulnerabilities. Penetration tests were performed based on the threat model. The results from the penetration tests did not find any exploitable vulnerabilities. The conclusion from evaluating the security of this Samsung refrigerator can say the product is secure and contributes to a connected, secure, and sustainable society. / Internet of Things (IoT) enheter blir mer allmänt förekommande. På grund av en snabbt expanderande marknad av dessa apparater, har bristfälliga säkerhetsåtgärder resulterat till en mängd olika attacker. Det finns ett behov att testa dessa enheter for att bidra till ett mer säkert och hållbart samhälle. Denna avhandling har utvärderat säkerheten av ett IoT-kylskåp genom att producera en hot modell för att identifiera sårbarheter. Penetrationstester har utförts på enheten, baserade på hot modellen. Resultatet av penetrationstesterna hittade inga utnyttjningsbara sårbarheter. Slutsatsen från utvärderingen av säkerheten på Samsung-kylskåpet är att produkten är säker och bidrar till ett uppkopplat, säkert, och hållbart samhälle.

This research explores the relationship between school shooter typologies, warning signs, and targeted school violence. The study's independent variables are school shooter typologies and warning signs, while the dependent variable is targeted school violence. The research wants to investigate whether a relationship exists between these variables. The null hypothesis states no relationship exists, while the alternative hypothesis suggests that a relationship exists. The research framework is based on Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System Theory, which helps understand how the environment and social interaction influence a child's development. The theory was influenced by Vygotsky's sociocultural theory—which focuses on the roles of human interactions and culturally structured activities in cognitive functioning that affect psychological growth, and Lewin's behaviorism theory—which proposed that behavior results from the individual and the environment. The findings show a strong, positive relationship, high correlation, and statistical significance difference between school shooter typologies, warning signs, and targeted school violence. The alternate hypothesis was accepted based on the findings, indicating that the relationship between these variables is not due to a coincidence or chance alone. These findings can offer valuable insights to policymakers in making informed decisions on allocating school safety resources to prevent targeted school violence.