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The nuclear receptor superfamily comprises a group of ligand-activated transcription factors that regulate the expression of target genes. They play a central role in diverse physiological pathways, and are therefore extremely important in the aetiology of various human disorders and as pharmaceutical therapeutic targets. This thesis describes molecular analyses of the thyroid hormone receptor (TR) and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), in disorders of thyroid hormone and insulin action respectively. The syndrome of Resistance to Thyroid Hormone (RTH), characterized by reduced tissue responsiveness to circulating thyroid hormones, is associated with diverse mutations in the ligand-binding domain of the thyroid hormone β receptor, localizing to three clusters around the hormone binding cavity. The first part of this thesis describes three novel RTH mutations (S314C, S314F, S314Y), due to different amino acid substitutions in the same codon, occurring in six separate families. Characterization of these mutant receptors showed marked differences in their functional impairment. In the second part of the thesis I report detailed functional studies of natural and synthetic receptor agonists with loss-of-function PPARγ mutants (P467L; V290M), previously identified in patients with severe insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Both PPARγ mutants act as dominant negative inhibitors of wild type receptor (WT) action because of their failure to fully dissociate from corepressors. My results provide evidence that tyrosine-based rather than thiazolidinedione PPARγ agonists, may represent a more rational therapeutic approach to restoring mutant receptor function and ameliorating insulin resistance in our patients. Then, in an unrelated kindred a different, digenic mechanism of insulin resistance, with a combination of loss-of-function mutations in PPARγ and PPP1R3 (muscle-specific subunit of protein-phosphatase 1 mediating glycogen synthesis) is described. Functional characterisation of these mutant proteins provides unique insights into the complex interplay between this nuclear receptor and a second metabolic signalling pathway. Finally, three novel heterozygous mutations, in the ligand and DNA binding domains of PPARγ, identified in three unrelated subjects with partial lipodystrophy, severe insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia and hypertension are described. Their functional characterization suggests that they inhibit WT action via a novel, non DNA-binding interference mechanism.

Thyroid disruptions by xenobiotics have been associated with a broad spectrum of severe adverse human health effects, such as impaired brain development and metabolic syndrome. Ingestion of indoor dust and contact with industrial chemicals are two significant human exposure routes of thyroid hormone disrupting chemicals (THDCs), raising serious concerns for human health. However, it is a laborious and costly process to identify THDCs using conventional experimental methods, due to the number of chemicals in commerce and the varieties of potential disruption mechanisms. In this thesis, we are aimed at in silico identification of novel THDCs targeting transthyretin (TTR) and thyroid hormone receptor (THR) among dust contaminants and commonly used industrial chemicals. In vitro assays were used to validate the in silico prediction results. Co-crystallization and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were applied to reveal binding modes of THDCs at the studied biological targets and to explain their intermolecular recognition. The main findings presented in this thesis are: 1. Over 144 environmental pollutants have been confirmed as TTR-binders in vitro and these cover a wide range of environmental pollutants and show distinct chemical profiles including a large group of halogenated aromatic compounds and a second group of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances. (Paper I) 2. In total 485 organic contaminants have been reported to be detected in household dust. The developed QSAR classification model predicted 7.6% of these dust contaminants and 53.1% of their metabolites as potential TTR-binders, which emphasizes the importance of metabolic bioactivation. After in vitro validation, four novel TTR binders with IC50 ≤ 10 µM were identified, i.e. perfluoroheptanesulfonic acid, 2,4,2',4'-tetrahydroxybenzophenone (BP2), 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, and 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol. (Paper II) 3. The development of a robust structure-based virtual screening (VS) protocol resulted in the prediction of 31 dust contaminants as potential binders to THRβ1 including musk compounds, PFASs, and bisphenol A derivatives. The in vitro experiments confirmed four compounds as weak binders to THRβ1, i.e. 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, bisphenol A (3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl) (2,3-dihydroxypropyl) ether, 2,4,2',4'-tetrahydroxybenzophenone, and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. (Paper III) 4. We revealed the binding conformations of perfluorooctanesulfonic acid, perfluorooctanoic acid, and BP2 in the thyroxine binding sites (TBSs) of TTR by co-crystallizing TTR with the three compounds. A VS protocol was developed based on the TTR complex structures that predicted 192 industrial chemicals as potential binders to TTR. Seven novel TTR binders were confirmed by in vitro experiments including clonixin, 2,6-dinitro-p-cresol (DNPC), triclopyr, fluroxypyr, bisphenol S, picloram, and mesotrione. We further co-crystallized TTR with PBS, clonixin, DNPC, and triclopyr, and their complex structures showed that the compounds bind in the TBSs as proposed by the VS protocol. In summary, 13 indoor dust contaminants and industrial chemicals were identified as THDCs using a combination of in silico and in vitro approaches. To the best of our knowledge, none of these compounds has previously been reported to bind to TTR or THR. The identifications of these THDCs improve our understanding on the structure-activity relationships of THDCs. The crystal structures of TTR-THDC complexes and the information on THDC-Target intermolecular interactions provide a better understanding on the mechanism-of-actions behind thyroid disruption. The dataset compiled and in silico methods developed serve as a basis for identification of more diverse THDCs in the future and a tool for guiding de novo design of safer replacements.

No description available.

No description available.

yes / Thyroid hormone (TH) is essential for adult brain function and its actions include several key roles in the hypothalamus. Although TH controls gene expression via specific TH receptors of the nuclear receptor class, surprisingly few genes have been demonstrated to be directly regulated by TH in the hypothalamus, or the adult brain as a whole. This study explored the rapid induction by TH of retinaldehyde dehydrogenase 1 (Raldh1), encoding a retinoic acid (RA)-synthesizing enzyme, as a gene specifically expressed in hypothalamic tanycytes, cells that mediate a number of actions of TH in the hypothalamus. The resulting increase in RA may then regulate gene expression via the RA receptors, also of the nuclear receptor class. In vivo exposure of the rat to TH led to a significant and rapid increase in hypothalamic Raldh1 within 4 hours. That this may lead to an in vivo increase in RA is suggested by the later induction by TH of the RA-responsive gene Cyp26b1. To explore the actions of RA in the hypothalamus as a potential mediator of TH control of gene regulation, an ex vivo hypothalamic rat slice culture method was developed in which the Raldh1-expressing tanycytes were maintained. These slice cultures confirmed that TH did not act on genes regulating energy balance but could induce Raldh1. RA has the potential to upregulate expression of genes involved in growth and appetite, Ghrh and Agrp. This regulation is acutely sensitive to epigenetic changes, as has been shown for TH action in vivo. These results indicate that sequential triggering of two nuclear receptor signalling systems has the capability to mediate some of the functions of TH in the hypothalamus.

Os receptores tireoidianos (TRs) são proteínas envolvidas em várias funções fisiológicas importantes para os organismos, pois são potentes reguladores do desenvolvimento, divisão e diferenciação celular, metabolismo e homeostase. Eles são responsáveis pela regulação da transcrição de genes-alvo específicos, mediando efeitos pleiotrópicos de hormônios lipofílicos nas células. Na ausência de ligantes essas proteínas estão complexadas a correpressores, impedindo a transcrição de genes por elas regulados. Por outro lado, a presença do ligante induz à transcrição através da ligação a elementos responsivos do DNA e coativadores. Nesse trabalho alguns aspectos do TR foram evidenciados, permintindo-se um melhor conhecimento acerca do funcionamento e estrutura desse receptor. Os experimentos de oligomerização revelaram a presença dos tetrâmeros do TR, os quais estavam restritos ao Receptor X Retinóico, sugerindo mecanismos novos na regulação do receptor. Os ensaios de raios-X a baixos ângulos resultaram nos primeiros modelos estruturais de baixa resolução de construções maiores do TR, demonstrando o correto posicionamento de seus domínios em sua estrutura geral, o que forneceu informações importantes sobre sua estrutura geral. Os experimentos de fluorescência avaliaram a ligação desses receptores a diversos elementos responsivos, em termos de constantes de dissociação e seletividade para cada um deles. E, por fim, os experimentos de troca de hidrogênio por deutério revelaram a movimentação que ocorre no domínio de ligação do ligante do receptor antes e após a adição do ligante T3. Esses resultados ampliam um pouco mais os conhecimentos sobre os mecanismos de ação e sobre a estrutura quaternária dos TR, promovendo um melhor entendimento dos conceitos básicos envolvidos na atuação dessas macromoléculas, as quais estão inseridas em redes complexas de regulação e interação com outras proteínas. / The thyroid receptors (TRs) are proteins, which are involved in diverse and important physiological functions in the organisms, since they are regulators of development, cell divison and differentiation, metabolism and homeostasis. They are responsible by the regulation of specific gene transcription, through pleiotropic effects of lipophilic hormones in the cells. In the absence of the ligand these proteins are complexed to correpressors and block the transcription of genes that are regulated by them On the other hand, in the presence of the ligand transcription is induced through the binding of the receptors to DNA response elements and coactivators. New findings about TR described in this study helped to improve the understanding of the function and structure of the receptor. This was accomplished by: oligomerization experiments which showed the presence of TR tetramers, a quarternary structure described before only for the Retinoid Receptor X, and suggested new regulation mechanisms for the receptors; the small angle X-ray scattering assays which resulted in the first low resolution structural models of bigger constructions of TR, showing the correct position of TR domains and providing important information about the global TR structure; the anisotropy fluorescence experiments which evaluated the binding of these receptors to diverse response elements, in terms of dissociation constants and selectivity for each one of the HREs tested; and finally, the hydrogen/deuterium experiments which revealed the ligand binding domain mobility before and after the ligand addition. In summary, we can say that these results all together extended the knowledge about the TR action mechanisms and its quarternary strucuture, providing better understanding of the basic concepts involved in these macromolecules behavior, which are inserted into a complex network of regulation and interaction with other proteins.

Infertility is defined as not being able to conceive after 1 year of regular intercourse without use of contraception. Unexplained infertility is a diagnosis given to couples where the reason to infertility cannot be clarified even after the routine examination. Undefined infertility is a common and growing problem because most people are not aware of the fact that fertility decreases after the age of 35. Hyper- and hypothyroidism has been known to affect the menstrual cycle as well as increased risk of miscarriage. However, the specific effect of thyroid hormones on infertility has not yet been clarified. This study aims to compare the gene expression of two thyroid hormone receptors DIO2 and MOT8 in human endometrium and fallopian tube tissue from two phases of the menstruation cycle, follicular phase and lutheal phase. The methods used were RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry, which showed a statistically significant difference in the expression of DIO2 and MOT8 between fallopian tube tissue and endometrium, but not between follicular and lutheal phase. However, MOT8 seemed to have a tendency to be down-regulated in the follicular phase but the results need to be validated with different endogenous controls and larger study groups.

L'épithélium intestinal est caractérisé par un renouvellement et une différenciation continus dépendant des cellules souches somatiques situées au fond des cryptes. Le renouvellement rapide est assuré par plusieurs réseaux de voies signalisation dont la dérégulation peut être à l'origine de l'initiation et/ou de la progression tumorale. Mon laboratoire d'accueil a décrit l'implication des hormones thyroïdiennes et de leur récepteur nucléaire TRa1 dans le contrôle de l'homéostasie de l'épithélium intestinal via la régulation de la voie Wnt/b-caténine d'une part et l'implication de TRa1 dans l'induction de tumeurs intestinales grâce à des souris surexprimant TRa1 d'autre part. De plus, dans un contexte APC muté, l'expression transgénique de TRa1 accélère la progression tumorale et favorise la dissémination métastatique. Des analyses transcriptomiques mettent en évidence une forte activation de la voie Wnt par TRa1. Ces résultats ont été confirmés chez l'homme en étudiant la régulation de la voie Wnt par TRa1 dans des carcinomes colorectaux (CRC). Nous avons confirmé la surexpression de TRa1 dans les tumeurs humaines et validé son impact sur la voie Wnt tant dans les tumeurs humaines que dans des lignées cellulaires et sur leur agressivité. L'ensemble des données montre une forte implication de TRa1 dans la tumorigenèse chez la souris et chez l'homme et ouvrent des portes pour des recherches visant TRa1 comme cible de traitement thérapeutique contre le cancer / The intestinal epithelium is characterized by constant renewal and differentiation due to the presence of stem cells located at the bottom of the crypts. This permanent renewal depends on the crosstalk between several signaling pathways whose alteration can lead to tumor initiation and progression. Our team demonstrated the implication of the thyroid hormones and their nuclear receptor TRa1 in the control of the intestinal epithelium homeostasis through the regulation of the Wnt pathway. Moreover, the overexpression of TRa1 in the intestinal epithelium of mice is sufficient to promote tumor initiation, and in an APC loss of function context, it accelerates tumor progression highlighting its oncogenic potential. Through gene expression profiling, we highlighted an activation of the Wnt pathway activity by TRa1 during tumor progression. We next confirm these results in human patient samples by demonstrating that high TRa1 expression in tumors invariably is associated with an increased Wnt pathway activity. In addition, in CRC cell lines, TRa1-associated WNT pathway activation enhances their aggressiveness. Altogether these results showed the implication of TRa1 in intestinal carcinogenesis and open avenues for new therapeutic treatment against TRa1 targeting TRa1

Os receptores tireoidianos (TRs) são proteínas envolvidas em várias funções fisiológicas importantes para os organismos, pois são potentes reguladores do desenvolvimento, divisão e diferenciação celular, metabolismo e homeostase. Eles são responsáveis pela regulação da transcrição de genes-alvo específicos, mediando efeitos pleiotrópicos de hormônios lipofílicos nas células. Na ausência de ligantes essas proteínas estão complexadas a correpressores, impedindo a transcrição de genes por elas regulados. Por outro lado, a presença do ligante induz à transcrição através da ligação a elementos responsivos do DNA e coativadores. Nesse trabalho alguns aspectos do TR foram evidenciados, permintindo-se um melhor conhecimento acerca do funcionamento e estrutura desse receptor. Os experimentos de oligomerização revelaram a presença dos tetrâmeros do TR, os quais estavam restritos ao Receptor X Retinóico, sugerindo mecanismos novos na regulação do receptor. Os ensaios de raios-X a baixos ângulos resultaram nos primeiros modelos estruturais de baixa resolução de construções maiores do TR, demonstrando o correto posicionamento de seus domínios em sua estrutura geral, o que forneceu informações importantes sobre sua estrutura geral. Os experimentos de fluorescência avaliaram a ligação desses receptores a diversos elementos responsivos, em termos de constantes de dissociação e seletividade para cada um deles. E, por fim, os experimentos de troca de hidrogênio por deutério revelaram a movimentação que ocorre no domínio de ligação do ligante do receptor antes e após a adição do ligante T3. Esses resultados ampliam um pouco mais os conhecimentos sobre os mecanismos de ação e sobre a estrutura quaternária dos TR, promovendo um melhor entendimento dos conceitos básicos envolvidos na atuação dessas macromoléculas, as quais estão inseridas em redes complexas de regulação e interação com outras proteínas. / The thyroid receptors (TRs) are proteins, which are involved in diverse and important physiological functions in the organisms, since they are regulators of development, cell divison and differentiation, metabolism and homeostasis. They are responsible by the regulation of specific gene transcription, through pleiotropic effects of lipophilic hormones in the cells. In the absence of the ligand these proteins are complexed to correpressors and block the transcription of genes that are regulated by them On the other hand, in the presence of the ligand transcription is induced through the binding of the receptors to DNA response elements and coactivators. New findings about TR described in this study helped to improve the understanding of the function and structure of the receptor. This was accomplished by: oligomerization experiments which showed the presence of TR tetramers, a quarternary structure described before only for the Retinoid Receptor X, and suggested new regulation mechanisms for the receptors; the small angle X-ray scattering assays which resulted in the first low resolution structural models of bigger constructions of TR, showing the correct position of TR domains and providing important information about the global TR structure; the anisotropy fluorescence experiments which evaluated the binding of these receptors to diverse response elements, in terms of dissociation constants and selectivity for each one of the HREs tested; and finally, the hydrogen/deuterium experiments which revealed the ligand binding domain mobility before and after the ligand addition. In summary, we can say that these results all together extended the knowledge about the TR action mechanisms and its quarternary strucuture, providing better understanding of the basic concepts involved in these macromolecules behavior, which are inserted into a complex network of regulation and interaction with other proteins.