Supramolecular chemistry has asserted itself as a significant multidisciplinary field concerned with molecular effects afforded through non-covalent molecular interactions. The increased interest in the literature towards nanoscale devices, through modulation of molecular function, has seen the renaissance of supramolecular chemistry as function progresses from solution to surface. Heterosupramolecular chemistry follows the architectural principles of supramolecular chemistry and embraces both covalent and non-covalent interactions of condensed phase surfaces and molecular components. A modular approach to device architecture was applied as a novel method of performing photocatalysis under visible light illumination. The application of heterosupramolecular assembly to the design of photoelectrochemical cells capable of visible light induced charge separation allowed the study of interfacial processes by means of electrochemical observations. Preparation of a series of supramolecular components was undertaken as specific molecular species within a photochemical system. Starting from a synthesised bidentate ligand that incorporated an acidic functional group, 4,4'-bis(methyl)phosphonate-2,2'-bipyridine (dmpbpy) as its ethyl ester, was chelated to give the surface sensitisers, bis-(2,2'-bipyridine)-(4,4'-bis(methyl)phosphonato-2,2'-bipyridine)ruthenium(II) dichloride ([Ru(bpy)2(dmpbpy)]Cl2) and cis-bis-(4,4'-bis-(methyl)phosphonato-2,2'-bipyridine)(2,2'-bipyridine)ruthenium(II) dichloride ([Ru(dmpbpy)2(bpy)]Cl2). An electron relay moiety with an acidic functional group, 1-ethyl-1'-(2-phosphonoethyl)-4,4'-bipyridinium dichloride (EVP), was also prepared using a procedure developed by the candidate. The electronic properties of the prepared photosensitisers were examined by theoretical quantum chemical TD-DFT calculations on the molecular structures and singlet excitations were discussed in relation to experimental data. This identified that the lowest lying LUMO states were consistently occupied by 2,2'-bipyridine (bpy) and this was speculated to be a factor affecting quantum injection yields. The effect of microwave modification of colloidal TiO2 suspensions under extended periods of treatment was investigated. Nanoparticles of TiO2 were compared and contrast to similar convection hydrothermally treated TiO2 and a commercial titania product, namely Degussa P25, both of which are utilised in device fabrication. The investigation identified that extended periods of microwave hydrothermal treatment do not greatly enhance the crystallinity and primary grain size of TiO2. The heterosupramolecular assembly of a multi-component photochemical system was constructed from prepared molecular and condensed phase components. It was demonstrated that this device was capable of inducing a photochemical reaction in H2O under irradiation with  > 420 nm in the absence of an organic electron donor. Interpretation of the photocurrents obtained from this assembly provided understanding of photochemical reactions under low light intensities. Optimised conditions for the photochemical reaction was determined to be pH = 5 and illumination yielded = 0.0036% with an apparent quantum yield (AQY) = 1.6%. Photocatalytic decomposition of organic compounds in a dye-sensitised photoelectrocatalytic cell was investigated for the complete mineralisation of EDTA into CO2, H2 and simple amines and interpreted through photocurrent observations. This was extended to a broad range of organic compounds of various solution concentrations as a simulated industrial waste stream. Photooxidation gave unique photocurrent-time profiles which identified two distinct interfacial processes by mathematical treatment of photocurrent transients with a kinetic model. Kinetic parameters were proposed as a factor for qualitative discrimination of the organic compounds. The implications of these results for heterogeneous catalysis were discussed and the formation of Host-Guest complexes as a method of molecular sensing and as specific photocatalytic receptors was proposed.

The project undertook a systematic study of chlorination of titanium oxycarbide and oxycarbonitride with the aim to develop further understanding of kinetics and mechanisms of the chlorination reactions. The project studied titania, ilmenite ores, and synthetic rutile reduced by carbon in argon and nitrogen and chlorinated at different temperatures, gas flow rates and compositions. Chlorination of titanium suboxides, iron and impurities in ilmenite was also examined. Chlorination of titanium oxycarbide Ti(O,C) or oxycarbonitride Ti(O,C,N) can be implemented at 200 to 400 deg.C, while the commercial chlorination process in the production of titanium metal or titania pigment requires 800 to 1100 deg.C. This makes chlorination of Ti(O,C) or Ti(O,C,N) an attractive technology in processing of titanium minerals. Chlorination reaction is strongly exothermal, which increased the sample temperature up to 200 deg.C above the furnace temperature. The chlorination of Ti(O,C) or Ti(O,C,N) was ignited at 150 deg.C to 200 deg.C depending on the sample composition. Their chlorination at 235 deg.C to 400 deg.C was close to completion in less than 30 min. The chlorination rate of titanium oxycarbide or oxycarbonitride increased with increasing gas flow rate. Sample composition had a significant effect on the extent of chlorination. The optimum results were obtained for titanium oxycarbide or oxycarbonitride produced with carbon to titania molar ratio of 2.5; these samples contained no detectable excess of carbon or unreduced titanium suboxides. In chlorination of reduced ilmenite ores and synthetic rutile, Ti(O,C) or Ti(O,C,N), metallic iron and Ti2O3 were chlorinated. The rate and extent of chlorination of titanium increased with increasing carbon to TiO2 ratio. Chlorination of Ti2O3 was slow relative to Ti(O,C) or Ti(O,C,N) and iron; chlorination of impurity oxides such as MgO, SiO2 and Al2O3 was not observed. The project also examined chlorination of Ti(O,C) or Ti(O,C,N) in ilmenite ore and synthetic rutile after removal of iron, which was achieved by aerated leaching of reduced samples in heated flask containing 0.37 M of ammonium chloride solution. Iron removal from the ilmenite ore or synthetic rutile resulted in higher rate and extent of chlorination of titanium oxycarbide or oxycarbonitride.

The project undertook a systematic study of chlorination of titanium oxycarbide and oxycarbonitride with the aim to develop further understanding of kinetics and mechanisms of the chlorination reactions. The project studied titania, ilmenite ores, and synthetic rutile reduced by carbon in argon and nitrogen and chlorinated at different temperatures, gas flow rates and compositions. Chlorination of titanium suboxides, iron and impurities in ilmenite was also examined. Chlorination of titanium oxycarbide Ti(O,C) or oxycarbonitride Ti(O,C,N) can be implemented at 200 to 400 deg.C, while the commercial chlorination process in the production of titanium metal or titania pigment requires 800 to 1100 deg.C. This makes chlorination of Ti(O,C) or Ti(O,C,N) an attractive technology in processing of titanium minerals. Chlorination reaction is strongly exothermal, which increased the sample temperature up to 200 deg.C above the furnace temperature. The chlorination of Ti(O,C) or Ti(O,C,N) was ignited at 150 deg.C to 200 deg.C depending on the sample composition. Their chlorination at 235 deg.C to 400 deg.C was close to completion in less than 30 min. The chlorination rate of titanium oxycarbide or oxycarbonitride increased with increasing gas flow rate. Sample composition had a significant effect on the extent of chlorination. The optimum results were obtained for titanium oxycarbide or oxycarbonitride produced with carbon to titania molar ratio of 2.5; these samples contained no detectable excess of carbon or unreduced titanium suboxides. In chlorination of reduced ilmenite ores and synthetic rutile, Ti(O,C) or Ti(O,C,N), metallic iron and Ti2O3 were chlorinated. The rate and extent of chlorination of titanium increased with increasing carbon to TiO2 ratio. Chlorination of Ti2O3 was slow relative to Ti(O,C) or Ti(O,C,N) and iron; chlorination of impurity oxides such as MgO, SiO2 and Al2O3 was not observed. The project also examined chlorination of Ti(O,C) or Ti(O,C,N) in ilmenite ore and synthetic rutile after removal of iron, which was achieved by aerated leaching of reduced samples in heated flask containing 0.37 M of ammonium chloride solution. Iron removal from the ilmenite ore or synthetic rutile resulted in higher rate and extent of chlorination of titanium oxycarbide or oxycarbonitride.

Orientador: Gustavo Rocha de Castro / Banca: Raquel Fernandes Pupo Nogueira / Banca: Marcelo Organachi Orlandi / Banca: Katia Jorge Ciuffi / Banca: Silvana Ruella de Oliveira / Resumo: A contaminação de corpos d'água e águas subterrâneas por substâncias tóxicas ocasiona a redução da qualidade da água e até mesmo sua inapropriação para consumo. Atualmente as técnicas convencionais de tratamento de águas e resíduos aquosos não são capazes de descontaminá-los totalmente, pois substâncias recalcitrantes e substâncias parcialmente removidas/degradadas - como alguns clorofenóis (CPs) e substâncias desreguladoras endócrinas (SDEs) - permanecem na água mesmo após submetida aos tratamentos convencionais, reforçando a necessidade do desenvolvimento de procedimentos mais completos, sustentáveis e que também sejam economicamente viáveis. A exemplo, a fotocatálise heterogênea utilizando materiais semicondutores ativados pela radiação UV para produção, principalmente, de radicais hidroxilos pode ser aplicada para se degradar contaminantes em meio aquoso, sendo o óxido de titânio o material mais empregado devido àelevada atividade, baixo custo, estabilidade, disponibilidade e propriedades químicas, físicas e biológicas adequadas. Apesar de diversas vantagens associadas ao seu uso em fotocatálise heterogênea, sua aplicação na forma de suspensões (a fim de fazer melhor proveito da área superficial das partículas) ainda é restrita devido principalmente a dificuldades de separação/remoção destas após o processo de degradação. Neste trabalho, fotocatalisadores híbridos a base de titânia foram produzidos para realizar fotocatálise heterogênea de compostos orgânicos em meio aquo... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The contamination of waters and groundwaters by toxic substances reduces the quality of water and can even make it inadequate for consumption. Currently, the conventional techniques for treatment of waters and wastewaters are not able to completely decontaminate them. This is attributed to the presence of partially removed/degraded andrecalcitrant substances such as chlorophenols (CPs) and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), since they persist in water even after the conventional treatment. This emphasizes the need for the development of more complete and sustainable processes that are also economically viable. For instance, heterogeneous photocatalysis utilizing UV-activated semiconductors for the production, mainly, of hydroxyl radicals is applied in the degradation of contaminants in aqueous medium. In this aspect, titanium oxide is the most used material in virtue of its high activity, low cost, stability, availability and suitable chemical, physical and biological properties. Despite so many advantages for the application of titanium oxide in heterogeneous photocatalysis, its application as slurries (to make better use of the surface area of particles) is still restrained by drawbacks related to separation/extraction steps. In this work, titania-based photocatalist hybrids were produced to perform heterogeneous photocatalysis of organic compounds in aqueous medium.As an alternative to implement particle separation from slurries, titania and mesoporous silica were depo... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

This thesis is dedicated to the exploration of fluid phases confined in nanoporous materials using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) techniques, with an aim to benefit catalysis research. Included in this report are studies of pure fluids and their mixtures, confined in titania and silica catalyst supports. These investigations are conducted at industrially-relevant, high-temperature (≥ 180 °C) and high-pressure conditions (up to 13 bar), made possible by a pilot-scale chemical reactor unit, designed to operate inside the strong magnetic fields of an NMR spectrometer. NMR spectroscopy, relaxation and pulsed field gradient (PFG) diffusion experiments were performed on each of the systems discussed in this report. Cyclohexane was initially studied inside a porous titania catalyst support at 188 °C and various pressures up to 13 bar. The adsorption and desorption processes of the cyclohexane were observed, revealing a number of previously unobserved phenomena. In addition to an overall, averaged diffusion coefficient, a slow diffusion coefficient was observed within the PFG NMR data attributable to surface diffusive processes occurring within the material. Additionally, T1 relaxation studies were found to provide experimental evidence for the differing configurations of adsorbed layers on the adsorption and desorption branch of the isotherm. Cyclohexane was subsequently studied alongside fluorobenzene in a series of silica catalyst supports of 6 nm, 10 nm and 20 nm pore size. In doing this, it was hoped that the multiple phenomena observed in the titania experiments might be deconvoluted, allowing a greater level of insight. The diffusivities of the fluids were found to differ significantly between the materials, and greater evidence was found of the slow-diffusing surface phase in each of the materials. Additionally, concentrations of cyclohexane and fluorobenzene in the gas and adsorbed layers inside the pore space were calculated via the results of the PFG NMR experiments, providing a map of confined phase behaviour. Competitive adsorption effects were found to become more significant, the smaller the pore size of the material. The results of the cyclohexane and fluorobenzene in silica studies were modelled, using approaches available in the literature, which were found to give varying levels of prediction. The data set acquired in this thesis was found to provide a useful standard, against which current and future models of confined phase behaviour might be verified.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Nanopartículas de dióxido de titânio vêm sendo extensamente empregadas como fotocatalisa-dores, já que são eficientes na degradação de diversos poluentes. Visando a obtenção de titâ-nias com diferentes propriedades, realizaram-se sínteses através do método sol-gel, a partir da hidrólise do tetraisopropóxido de titânio (IV) TIPP e seguindo-se os princípios da Química Verde, dispensando-se temperaturas e pressões elevadas. Foi estudada a influência de dife-rentes parâmetros, como: pH, solvente, razão molar álcool/TIPP e ordem de adição dos rea-gentes. Foram obtidas titânias na forma cristalina anatásio, nanométricas, com elevadas áreas superficiais específicas e predominantemente mesoporosas. Visando-se obter titânias com melhores propriedades óticas, isto é, capazes de sofrer a fotoativação pela luz visível, foram sintetizadas titânias dopadas e co-dopadas com os metais ferro e rutênio (Fe3+ e Ru3+) e o a-metal N (N3). A síntese desses materiais também foi realizada através do método sol-gel, sendo a dopagem realizada durante o processo de hidrólise. As amostras foram caracterizadas na forma de pó por difração de raios-X, adsorção-dessorção de nitrogênio, microscopia ele-trônica de varredura e espectroscopia de refletância difusa no UV-Visível. A titânia pura a-presentou como única fase cristalina o anatásio, quando calcinada até 400 C, com a presença de traços de brookita. A partir de 600 C, observou-se o aparecimento da fase rutilo, que em 900C foi a única fase encontrada na titânia. A dopagem com Ru3+dificultou a transformação de fase anatásio para rutilo, ao contrário da dopagem com Fe3+. O processo de co-dopagem acelerou a formação de rutilo, que se apresentou como única fase nas amostras calcinadas a 600 C. As titânias dopadas apresentaram uma leve diminuição na energia de bandgap, sendo os dopantes capazes de deslocar a absorção para o vermelho. Foram realizados testes fotoca-talíticos visando à degradação do azocorante Reactive Yellow 145 com lâmpada de vapor de mercúrio de 125 W a fim de se comparar as atividades fotocatalíticas das titânias puras, dopa-das e co-dopadas, calcinadas a 300C. De todas as titânias sintetizadas, a titânia pura foi a que melhor degradou o corante, tendo um desempenho semelhante ao do TiO2 P25, da Evo-nik / Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have been widely used as photocatalysts due to their efficien-cy in degrading a variety of pollutants. Aiming at obtaining titanium dioxides with different properties, several syntheses were performed using the sol-gel method, hydrolyzing titanium tetraisopropoxide (IV) TIPP and adopting Green Chemistry principles, avoiding high temperatures and pressures. The effect of different synthesis parameters, such as: pH, sol-vent, alcohol/TIPP molar ratio, and reagents addition order was assessed. Nanometric, mesoporous (mainly), anatase titanium dioxides with high specific surface area were obtained. Aiing at developing titanium dioxides with improved optical properties, that is, capable of undergoing photoactivation by visible light, doped and co-doped titanium dioxides with the metals iron and ruthenium (Fe3+ and Ru3+) and the nonmetal N (N3) were synthesized. Those materials were also synthesized by the sol-gel method, in which doping was carried out during the hydrolysis step. Samples were characterized in powder form by X-ray diffraction, nitrogen adsorption-desorption, scanning electron microscopy, and diffuse reflectance spec-troscopy in the UV-Visible range. Pure titania samples presented anatase as the sole crystal-line phase when calcined at 400C, with traces amounts of brookite. At 600C, it was ob-served rutile phase, which is the only one at 900C. Doping with Ru3+ impaired the trans-formation of anatase to rutile, while just the opposite happened with Fe3+. The reagents order during the synthesis proved to be a very important parameter to be observed , since the surface area increases significantly and the amount of macropores in the final product. All doped titanium dioxides presented a slight decrease in the bandgap energy (red shift). Photocatalytic tests were performed aimed at degrading of the azo dye Reactive Yellow 145 with a 125 W mercury-vapor lamp. The performance of pure, doped, and co-doped titanium dioxides, calcined at 300C was compared. Pure titanium dioxide showed the best results, with a simi-lar formance to EvoniksTiO2 P25

Submitted by Alexandre de Oliveira Jorgetto null (xjorgetto@gmail.com) on 2018-04-05T18:45:17Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese de doutorado - Alexandre de Oliveira Jorgetto.pdf: 5509260 bytes, checksum: b27fbb220e5624b1c0b2901186014558 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Carolina Gonçalves Bet null (abet@iq.unesp.br) on 2018-04-10T17:28:25Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 jorgetto_ao_dr_araiq_int.pdf: 5485342 bytes, checksum: 3cacde59176e43fc4144aff7336a05e9 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-10T17:28:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 jorgetto_ao_dr_araiq_int.pdf: 5485342 bytes, checksum: 3cacde59176e43fc4144aff7336a05e9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-03-09 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / A contaminação de corpos d’água e águas subterrâneas por substâncias tóxicas ocasiona a redução da qualidade da água e até mesmo sua inapropriação para consumo. Atualmente as técnicas convencionais de tratamento de águas e resíduos aquosos não são capazes de descontaminá-los totalmente, pois substâncias recalcitrantes e substâncias parcialmente removidas/degradadas – como alguns clorofenóis (CPs) e substâncias desreguladoras endócrinas (SDEs) – permanecem na água mesmo após submetida aos tratamentos convencionais, reforçando a necessidade do desenvolvimento de procedimentos mais completos, sustentáveis e que também sejam economicamente viáveis. A exemplo, a fotocatálise heterogênea utilizando materiais semicondutores ativados pela radiação UV para produção, principalmente, de radicais hidroxilos pode ser aplicada para se degradar contaminantes em meio aquoso, sendo o óxido de titânio o material mais empregado devido àelevada atividade, baixo custo, estabilidade, disponibilidade e propriedades químicas, físicas e biológicas adequadas. Apesar de diversas vantagens associadas ao seu uso em fotocatálise heterogênea, sua aplicação na forma de suspensões (a fim de fazer melhor proveito da área superficial das partículas) ainda é restrita devido principalmente a dificuldades de separação/remoção destas após o processo de degradação. Neste trabalho, fotocatalisadores híbridos a base de titânia foram produzidos para realizar fotocatálise heterogênea de compostos orgânicos em meio aquoso. Como abordagem alternativa para implementação da separação de suspensões, realizou-se a deposição de sílica mesoporosa e titânia sobre núcleos de magnetita, sendo a magnetita responsável por possibilitar a separação magnética do material híbridode suspensões, enquanto que a sílica mesoporosa incrementaria a atividade da titânia por meio do aumento de sua área superficial. No caso do recobrimento por titânia, uma nova rota por meio de ebulição de etanol foi desenvolvida. Análises de difração de raios X indicaram que o recobrimento de sílica preveniu a conversão dos núcleos de magnetita à hematita após calcinação. Foi notado também a formação da fase anatase de titânia nos materiais híbridos para composições de titânia iguais ou maiores que 43 % em massa. Análises de espectroscopia de infravermelho reforçaram a presença de titânia juntamente à sílica, e também apontou para um limite de deposição para a titânia, que foi posteriormente verificado também por espectrofotometria de fluorescência de raios X. Através de microscopia eletrônica de varredura, observou-se a formação e crescimento da fase anatase sobre partículas de sílica e magnetita para composições de 53 % de titânia ou maiores, e análises de espectroscopia de energia dispersiva de raios X demonstraram os elementos Si e Ti se encontrarem bem-distribuídos ao redor das partículas de magnetita, sílica e titânia. O material híbrido produzido apresentou estrutura mesoporosa como o da sílica MCM-41, no entanto de área superficial específica menor, atingindo em torno de 248 m2 g-1. Análises de ressonância magnética nuclear de 29Si indicaram haver ligação química entre as fases sólidas de sílica e titânia. Experimentos de fotodegradação demonstraram que os híbridos de magnetita, sílica e titânia consistem de adsorventes ineficientes de 4-clorofenol. A atividade fotocatalítica destes materiais apresentou relação com o crescimento da textura de titânia, sendo os materiais fotoativos aqueles com composições de 53 % ou maiores. Cinéticas de degradação de ordem zero foram observadas para todos os materiais. Os materiais fotoativos também se demonstraram indiferentes ao pH do meio, com eficiências similares em pH 3,0 e 7,2. Ao se comparar as eficiências dos materiais híbridos, em termos de suas taxas iniciais de degradação, com as de materiais comerciais Hombikat 100 UV e Aeroxide® TiO2 P25 estabeleceu-se que a ordem decrescente de eficiência sob concentrações de catalisador otimizadas foi Aeroxide® TiO2 P25 > Hombikat 100 UV >híbrido de sílica e titânia >híbrido de magnetita, sílica e titânia. Concluiu-se dos experimentos de degradação que a incorporação de sílica e magnetita aos fotocatalisadores de titânia compromete a eficiência degradativa destes; em contrapartida, no caso dos materiais contendo núcleos de magnetita, sua recuperação magnética pode consistir de uma propriedade compensatória em termos de aplicação. A fim de se incrementar a atividade fotocatalítica dos materiais, estes foram sujeitos a etapas de modificação superficial por meio da incorporação de ácido rubeânico (AR) por silanização ou adsorção direta e/ou também por complexação de íons Fe3+ em meio aquoso, com a finalidade de se sensitizar os fotocatalisadores. A imobilização do AR por meio de silanização demonstrou-se mais eficiente, enquanto sua dessorção foi verificada para o material modificado por adsorção direta. No caso dos materiais modificados com Fe3+, constatou-se que a complexação destes íons sobre os materiais híbridos implicou na redução da fotoatividade destes, enquanto nenhum efeito foi notado em pH 6 para a fotoatividade de Hombikat 100 UV modificado. Mais experimentos seriam necessários para se determinar as taxas de degradação iniciais dos materiais estudados. Nos experimentos sob luz visível apenas Hombikat 100 UV e sua respectiva versão modificada apresentaram atividade. Ao se aplicar o material Hombikat 100 UV modificado com Fe3+ em pH 3,0, notou-se evidência de aumento de eficiência sob iluminação UV. / The contamination of waters and groundwaters by toxic substances reduces the quality of water and can even make it inadequate for consumption. Currently, the conventional techniques for treatment of waters and wastewaters are not able to completely decontaminate them. This is attributed to the presence of partially removed/degraded andrecalcitrant substances such as chlorophenols (CPs) and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), since they persist in water even after the conventional treatment. This emphasizes the need for the development of more complete and sustainable processes that are also economically viable. For instance, heterogeneous photocatalysis utilizing UV-activated semiconductors for the production, mainly, of hydroxyl radicals is applied in the degradation of contaminants in aqueous medium. In this aspect, titanium oxide is the most used material in virtue of its high activity, low cost, stability, availability and suitable chemical, physical and biological properties. Despite so many advantages for the application of titanium oxide in heterogeneous photocatalysis, its application as slurries (to make better use of the surface area of particles) is still restrained by drawbacks related to separation/extraction steps. In this work, titania-based photocatalist hybrids were produced to perform heterogeneous photocatalysis of organic compounds in aqueous medium.As an alternative to implement particle separation from slurries, titania and mesoporous silica were deposited on the surface of magnetite cores. The incorporation of magnetite to the hybrid aimed to enable its magnetic separation from slurries whereas the incorporation of silica had the purpose of incrementing its activity by increasing the surface area of the hybrid material. A new route has been developed to perform the titania coating, which was based on the boiling of ethanolic medium. X-ray diffraction analyses indicated that the silica layer prevented phase conversion of magnetite cores to hematite after calcination. The formation of titania anatase phase was also observed for the hybrid materials for the mass composition of 43 % or greater. Infrared spectroscopy supported the presence of titania along with silica, and also pointed to a deposition limit for the titania layer that was also verified posteriorly through x-ray fluorescence spectrophotometry. Scanning electron microscopy enabled the observation of the formation and growth of anatase phase over magnetite-silica particles for compositions of 53 % or greater. Energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy demonstrated that Si and Ti were well- distributed over the magnetite-silica-titania particles. The hybrid material presented mesoporous structure likewise MCM-41, but with a smaller specific surface area of approximately 248 m2 g 1.29Si nuclear magnetic resonance provided evidence that silica and titania phases were chemically bonded. Photodegradation experiments demonstrated that magnetite-silica-titania hybrids are inefficient 4-chlorophenol adsorbents. The photocatalytic activity of the hybrids demonstrated to have relation with the growth of the titania texture, being the photoactive materials those with mass compositions of 53 % or greater. The kinetic behavior of the materials was found to have zero order and was pH-independent, having similar performances at pH 3.0 and 7.2. As the efficiencies of the hybrids are compared with those of commercial materials Hombikat 100 UV and Aeroxide® TiO2 P25, the decreasing order of efficiency could be obtained as Aeroxide® TiO2 P25 > Hombikat 100 UV >silica-titania hybrid > magnetite-silica-titania hybrid. Degradation experiments allowed to conclude that the incorporation of silica and magnetite to the titania photocatalists compromise their efficiencies; on the other hand, in the case of the materials containing magnetite cores, the possibility of magnetic retrieval may consist of a compensatory property with regard to practical application. To increment the photocatalytic activity of the materials, they underwent surface modification steps to have immobilized rubeanic acid (RA) either through sinalization or through direct adsorption. The complexation of Fe3+ to the surface of the hybrids was also tested in combination with rubeanic acid or without it to perform the sensitization of the photocatalysts. The immobilization of RA via silanization demonstrated to be more efficient, whereas its desorption could be verified for the material modified with RA by direct adsorption. In the case of hybrid materials modified with Fe3+ ions, the complexation of the ions led to a decay in their performance whereas no effect was observed at pH 6 for the material Hombikat 100 UV modified with Fe3+.More experiments are necessary to determine the initial degradation rates of the studied materials. In the experiments under visible light, only Hombikat 100 UV and its modified version presented photoactivity. When Fe3+-modified Hombikat 100 UV was tested at pH 3.0, evidence of increase in activity was noted under UV illumination. / Fapesp 2013/22955-2 e 2015/05224-0

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Nanopartículas de dióxido de titânio vêm sendo extensamente empregadas como fotocatalisa-dores, já que são eficientes na degradação de diversos poluentes. Visando a obtenção de titâ-nias com diferentes propriedades, realizaram-se sínteses através do método sol-gel, a partir da hidrólise do tetraisopropóxido de titânio (IV) TIPP e seguindo-se os princípios da Química Verde, dispensando-se temperaturas e pressões elevadas. Foi estudada a influência de dife-rentes parâmetros, como: pH, solvente, razão molar álcool/TIPP e ordem de adição dos rea-gentes. Foram obtidas titânias na forma cristalina anatásio, nanométricas, com elevadas áreas superficiais específicas e predominantemente mesoporosas. Visando-se obter titânias com melhores propriedades óticas, isto é, capazes de sofrer a fotoativação pela luz visível, foram sintetizadas titânias dopadas e co-dopadas com os metais ferro e rutênio (Fe3+ e Ru3+) e o a-metal N (N3). A síntese desses materiais também foi realizada através do método sol-gel, sendo a dopagem realizada durante o processo de hidrólise. As amostras foram caracterizadas na forma de pó por difração de raios-X, adsorção-dessorção de nitrogênio, microscopia ele-trônica de varredura e espectroscopia de refletância difusa no UV-Visível. A titânia pura a-presentou como única fase cristalina o anatásio, quando calcinada até 400 C, com a presença de traços de brookita. A partir de 600 C, observou-se o aparecimento da fase rutilo, que em 900C foi a única fase encontrada na titânia. A dopagem com Ru3+dificultou a transformação de fase anatásio para rutilo, ao contrário da dopagem com Fe3+. O processo de co-dopagem acelerou a formação de rutilo, que se apresentou como única fase nas amostras calcinadas a 600 C. As titânias dopadas apresentaram uma leve diminuição na energia de bandgap, sendo os dopantes capazes de deslocar a absorção para o vermelho. Foram realizados testes fotoca-talíticos visando à degradação do azocorante Reactive Yellow 145 com lâmpada de vapor de mercúrio de 125 W a fim de se comparar as atividades fotocatalíticas das titânias puras, dopa-das e co-dopadas, calcinadas a 300C. De todas as titânias sintetizadas, a titânia pura foi a que melhor degradou o corante, tendo um desempenho semelhante ao do TiO2 P25, da Evo-nik / Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have been widely used as photocatalysts due to their efficien-cy in degrading a variety of pollutants. Aiming at obtaining titanium dioxides with different properties, several syntheses were performed using the sol-gel method, hydrolyzing titanium tetraisopropoxide (IV) TIPP and adopting Green Chemistry principles, avoiding high temperatures and pressures. The effect of different synthesis parameters, such as: pH, sol-vent, alcohol/TIPP molar ratio, and reagents addition order was assessed. Nanometric, mesoporous (mainly), anatase titanium dioxides with high specific surface area were obtained. Aiing at developing titanium dioxides with improved optical properties, that is, capable of undergoing photoactivation by visible light, doped and co-doped titanium dioxides with the metals iron and ruthenium (Fe3+ and Ru3+) and the nonmetal N (N3) were synthesized. Those materials were also synthesized by the sol-gel method, in which doping was carried out during the hydrolysis step. Samples were characterized in powder form by X-ray diffraction, nitrogen adsorption-desorption, scanning electron microscopy, and diffuse reflectance spec-troscopy in the UV-Visible range. Pure titania samples presented anatase as the sole crystal-line phase when calcined at 400C, with traces amounts of brookite. At 600C, it was ob-served rutile phase, which is the only one at 900C. Doping with Ru3+ impaired the trans-formation of anatase to rutile, while just the opposite happened with Fe3+. The reagents order during the synthesis proved to be a very important parameter to be observed , since the surface area increases significantly and the amount of macropores in the final product. All doped titanium dioxides presented a slight decrease in the bandgap energy (red shift). Photocatalytic tests were performed aimed at degrading of the azo dye Reactive Yellow 145 with a 125 W mercury-vapor lamp. The performance of pure, doped, and co-doped titanium dioxides, calcined at 300C was compared. Pure titanium dioxide showed the best results, with a simi-lar formance to EvoniksTiO2 P25

La séparation magnétique a reçu beaucoup d'attention en tant que technologie de séparation de catalyseurs solides, très efficace et rapide. De nombreuses études ont porté sur l'immobilisation de systèmes catalytiques actifs sur un support magnétique afin de les séparer par la simple application d'un aimant. Cependant, le développement de supports magnétiques s'avère limité à des nanoparticules (NPs) magnétiques encapsulées dans une silice, un polymère ou du carbone. La conception de nanocomposites magnétiques incorporant d'autres oxydes est donc intéressante afin d'élargir l'application de cette technologie de séparation dans le domaine de la catalyse. Dans ce contexte, des études de stabilité thermique ont été menées sur magnétite revêtue de silice (Fe3O4@SiO2) pour évaluer la possibilité de la calciner sans perdre les propriétés magnétiques du support. La calcination permettrait le dépôt de différents oxydes sur la surface de la silice, tels que l'oxyde de cérium et l'oxyde de titane. Il a été observé que le matériau Fe3O4@SiO2 calciné a conservé sa morphologie core-shell et ses propriétés magnétiques, tandis que sa surface spécifique at a augmenté de 6 odres de grandeur. Un processus a pu être développé pour le dépôt d'oxyde de cérium et d'oxyde de titane sur Fe3O4@SiO2. Des nanocatalyseurs aisément récupérables par séparation magnétique à base de Rh, Pd et Ru ont pu être préparés en utilisant ces supports de silice modifiés par dépôt de CeO2 et TiO2. Ces nanocatalyseurs obtenus ont été évalués en catalyse d'hydrogénation du cyclohexène, du benzène ou du phénol. L'étude de l'influence de chaque support sur l'activité catalytique des nanocatalyseurs a consitué l'objectif principal de cette thèse. Le dépôt des nanoparticules métalliques sur les supports pour l'obtention des catalyseurs actifs a été réalisé par deux approches différentes: l'imprégnation et l'immobilisation de sols contenant des NP métalliques préformées. Quant aux NPs métalliques colloïdales, elles ont été préparées par réduction de sels métalliques et par la décomposition de complexes organométalliques précurseurs. Des catalyseurs de rhodium préparés par imprégnation de rhodium (III) chlorure et réduction avec H2 ont montré des problèmes de reproductibilité qui ont été contournés en utilisant NaBH4 ou l'hydrazine comme agents réducteurs. La préparation des catalyseurs par l'immobilisation des NP colloïdales s'est avérée une alternative intéressante pour obtenir des catalyseurs très actifs de façon reproductible. Des nanoparticules de Pd, Rh et Ru ont été préparées par l'approche organométallique et immobilisées sur les supports Fe3O4@SiO2 calciné, Fe3O4@SiO2CeO2 et Fe3O4@SiO2TiO2. L'élimination de l'agent stabilisant pour les NPs de Rh déposées sur Fe3O4@SiO2CeO2 semble conduire à un état de surface différent comparativement aux autres supports car ce catalyseur s'est montré le plus actif vis-à-vis de l'hydrogénation du cyclohexène (TOF 125 000 h-1). Les catalyseurs à base de Rh, Pd et Ru ont été utilisées pour l'hydrogénation de phénol. Le palladium s'est avéré le catalyseur le plus sélectif envers la cyclohexanone, quel que soit le support utilisé. La formation de cyclohexanol a été renforcée avec le support fonctionnalisé par l'oxyde de titane et la production de cyclohexane par hydrodéoxygénation a eu lieu principalement avec le support de silice. / Magnetic separation has received a lot of attention as a robust, highly efficient and rapid catalyst separation technology. Many studies have focused on the immobilization of catalytic active species, but the development of magnetic supports has been limited to silica, polymer or carbon-coated magnetic nanoparticles (NPs). The design of magnetic nanocomposites and the incorporation of other oxides are thus highly welcome to broaden the application of this separation technology in the field of catalysis. In this context, studies of the thermal stability of silica coated magnetite (Fe3O4@SiO2) were performed to evaluate the possibility of calcining it without losing the magnetic properties of the support. The calcination would permit the deposition of different oxides on the silica surface, such as ceria and titania. The calcined Fe3O4@SiO2 material preserved its core-shell morphology and magnetic properties, and increased its surface area six times. A post-coating process was developed for the deposition of ceria and titania on Fe3O4@SiO2. Magnetically recoverable Rh, Pd and Ru nanocatalysts were prepared on the surface of the magnetic supports. The obtained catalysts were employed in hydrogenation of cyclohexene, benzene or phenol and the study of the influence of each support on the catalytic activity was the main objective of this thesis. For the deposition of the metallic nanoparticles on the supports in order to obtain the active catalysts two different approaches were followed: the impregnation and the sol immobilization of pre-formed metal NPs. Concerning the synthesis of the colloidal metal NPs, they were prepared either by reduction of metal salts or by decomposition of organometallic complexes. Rhodium catalysts prepared by impregnation of rhodium(III) chloride and reduction with H2 showed some reproducibility issues that were surpassed by using NaBH4 or hydrazine as reducing agents. The preparation of catalysts by the immobilization of colloidal NPs is an interesting alternative to obtain reproducible and very active catalysts. Nanoparticles of Pd, Rh and Ru were prepared by an organometallic approach and immobilized on calcined Fe3O4@SiO2, Fe3O4@SiO2CeO2 and Fe3O4@SiO2TiO2. The elimination of Rh stabilizing agent over ceria support appears to be different than in other supports and was the most active catalyst in the hydrogenation of cyclohexene (TOF 125,000 h-1). The Rh, Pd and Ru catalysts were employed in the hydrogenation of phenol. Palladium was the most selective catalyst to cyclohexanone, no matter the support used. The formation of cyclohexanol is enhanced in the support with titania and the hydrodeoxygenation to produce cyclohexane occurred mainly in the support with silica.

La photocatalyse est une technique émergente de traitement des déchets qui nécessite un faible apport d’énergie présentée sous forme lumineuse. L’emploi de catalyseurs supportés autorise une séparation efficace des produits de réaction, en dépit d’une réduction de leur surface spécifique. De par les avantages qu’offre la pulvérisation réactive (bonne tenue mécanique, synthèse sur substrats froids, contrôle aisé de la microstructure, …), la synthèse de revêtements de TiO2 par cette technique fait l’objet de recherches intensives.Après une description des mécanismes mis en jeu lors d’une réaction photocatalytique, les phénomènes physiques à la base de la synthèse de revêtements céramiques par pulvérisation réactive à haute pression sont détaillés. Afin de s’affranchir de la contamination du catalyseur par le sodium du verre, une barrière de diffusion de SiNx est intercalée. Les influences de la position du substrat par rapport au flux de vapeur métallique, de la température de recuit, de la pression totale et de l’épaisseur des films catalyseurs sur leurs propriétés physicochimiques et photocatalytiques sont étudiées, autorisant la formulation d’hypothèses quant aux liens qui les unissent. Enfin, des premiers travaux portant sur la synthèse d’un photocatalyseur TiO2-xNy cristallisé in situ à haute pression sont présentés. / AThe photocatalysis is a new way of organic pollutants treatments which needs a low energy supplied under light wave. The use of supported catalyst allows an efficient separation of the reaction products, in spite of their specific area reduction. Owing to the advantages that offers reactive sputtering (good mechanical adhesion, synthesis on cold substrates, easy control of the microstructure, …), the synthesis by this technique of the most promising semiconductor photocatalyst, namely the titanium dioxide, is the subject of intensive researchs. After a description of the mechanisms occurring during a photocatalytic reaction, the physical phenomena at the origin of the ceramic coating synthesis are detailed. In order to hinder the sodium contamination of the catalyst from the glass substrate, a SiNx diffusion barrier is intercalated. The influences of the substrate position relatively to the metallic flux, the annealing temperature, the total pressure and the TiO2 coating thickness on the physico-chemical and photocatalytic properties are investigated allowing the formulation of hypothetic relations combining them. Finally, first studies on in situ crystallized TiO2-xNy photocatalyst deposited at high pressure are presented.