There is a common belief that the special situation one encounters in restrooms is likely to evoke negative associations between the setting and a potential product, and that these presumed associations make advertising in restrooms incompatible with the objectives of advertisers. This general proposition was questioned on theoretical grounds. It was argued that the specific situation in a restroom would be conducive to advertising goals in a number of ways. In addition, while negative associations may occur with certain kinds of products, others were hypothesized to be unaffected. In particular, the potential value of restrooms for communicating public education issues such as AIDS and Cholesterol was examined.

Growing cities come with complex challenges. As diverse people live and work in the cities, the public spaces within them must accommodate a range of needs and wants. But who is the city built for? By using semi-structured interviews, site visits, observations and an online survey, this thesis aimed to investigate the public toilets of Stockholm, asking what the role of the public toilets are and how this has been shaped, what peoples experiences of and thus approaches towards them are as well as how we could start to change current discourses and practices, both in developing and using them. The study indicated that the role of the public toilet is to make the city accessible for all, especially for more toilet-dependent people and as a means of equity and that it has become more central and public in the city than before. People’s experiences of and attitudes towards public toilets are indicated to be generally negative but there are several ways which one could change current practices, such as inclusive design processes, more information and transparency, retrofitting and adding value to public toilets in public space rather than taking functions away. The question of public toilets in cities are still highly unexplored and this thesis calls for a change on all levels and for all actors involved to work towards a more inclusive city where our most basic needs are accommodated for in a just and equal way.

No description available.

Reconnection of the city structure of Michalovce, which appears to be historical and contemporary at the same time. The resolution of the problem with parking in the town. New cultural institution hand in hand with public space. The addition of city functions, the revitalization of the city park’s character and creation of the option for living in the town.

A society´s health depends on the access to proper and hygiene sanitation. Half of the population still do not have access to proper sanitation in Nepal; therefore government and non-government organizations are facilitating sanitation access to all the population. Decades ago, open defecation and pit latrines toilet were the only options as sanitation system to the people. But now, various types of toilets system known as dry toilets, septic tanks, centralized sewerage system and biogas integrated toilets are available. Therefore, existing toilet system in rural areas of Nepal needs to be evaluated with respect to environment and long term sustainability. Aim of this study is to find the appropriate toilet system for rural areas of Nepal. This study also discusses how that appropriate toilet system can be promoted based on current scenarios from government level to local level. Generic Multi-Attribute Analysis (GMAA) is used as a decision support tools to evaluate available various toilet alternatives. For which a rural area from Nepal is chosen as study area. GMAA helps in evaluating all the toilet system based on social, technological, environmental and economical aspects. Interpretation between the toilet systems can be made easily with the help of GMAA results. Field questionnaire survey was also carried out in the study area to know user´s understanding of toilet alternatives. Every toilet systems have pro and cons based on different social, technological, environmental and economical aspects. It was found that pit latrines toilet systems are mostly practiced in the rural areas of Nepal. User prefers pit latrines because of its social accepted character and technologically easy in using it. Biogas integrated toilet system came as optimal toilet system though not accessible to all household. It was found that urine and faeces separating toilets are environmentally and economically beneficial. The thesis concludes that appropriate toilet system which is sustainable must be promoted while increasing toilet coverage in Nepal. Urine and faeces separating toilet is found to be appropriate and need to be incorporated in the government goal of increasing toilet coverage.

D.Ing. (Civil Engineering) / The thesis investigates the whole life cycle of the community ablution facilities in the eThekwini municipality, and aimed to identify the technical success factors in rolling out communal ablution facilities as an interim measure in the upgrading of informal settlements throughout South Africa. The eThekwini municipality is based on the east coast of South Africa. Approximately 12% of the 3.4 million inhabitants of eThekwini are housing informally in one of the 420 informal settlements scattered around the urban and peri-urban areas. The municipality is responsible for the provision of basic interim services to these informal settlements within their jurisdiction and is in the process of rolling out containerised ablution facilities to all informal settlements as an interim measure. They have successfully provided 302 communal ablution blocks from 2009. The findings of this thesis were based on the rollout of these communal ablution blocks. The thesis is structured in the life cycle of the community ablution blocks. The thesis required a broad set of data from a number of stakeholders in order to understand each stage in the life cycle, using a number of different data sources, such as (i) interviews with the municipality, professional service providers, and the caretakers, (ii) municipal and project related documentation and data, (iii) surveys of the existing community ablution blocks, and (iv) data logging of the water meters at the community ablution blocks. The pre-implementation stages of the community ablution blocks investigated the planning, design and construction stages of the project. In the planning stage, the municipality prioritised each settlement based on a set of technical criteria, such as location to existing infrastructure, transport routes, bulk water and sanitation services, social infrastructure, the population of the settlement; to ensure that all interim infrastructure are considered within an integrated framework in order to reduce fruitless capital expenditure. Each settlement required community buy-in for both the placement and provision of the ablution facility and the selection of the caretaker. The design stage deals with the hydraulic design of the water supply and sewerage pipes as these were unknown parameters. The ablution structure and the sanitary fittings were discussed, but these were not significant in the design due to the space constraints within the containerised ablution facilities. There were significant delays found in the construction phase, which increased the initial estimated time required for construction by a factor of approximately three, which not only places a burden on the municipality to maintain the momentum of the project at scale but also increases the budget required for construction. The post-implementation stages were not found to function as intended. The key success factors in the post-implementation stages were dependent on the quality of the caretaker and the quality of the support given to the caretaker. Furthermore, all maintenance work has to be performed rapidly to ensure that the caretakers remain proactive in ensuring the facility remains operational. The consequence of poor operation and maintenance has detrimental effects on the community, who have to resort to open defecation and other unimproved forms of sanitation. The thesis adds to the shared water and sanitation body of knowledge. The thesis provides both quantitative and qualitative data on the post-implementation stage of the community ablution blocks, an area which is often neglected in practice.

SANITATION, PUBLIC HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT The approach to sanitation worldwide should be ecologically sustainable, i.e. concerned with protection of the environment. This means that sanitation systems should neither pollute ecosystems nor deplete scarce resources. It further implies that sanitation systems should not lead to degrading water or land and should, where possible, ameliorate existing problems caused by pollution. More research and better designs are needed. Human excreta can be rendered harmless, and toilet designs that do this in harmony with agricultural and social customs hold promise for the future. Problems with conventional sanitation systems have been shown to include inadequate institutional capacity to deal with the sanitation process, a fixation with providing either a full waterborne system or a VIP toilet, the social acceptability of various systems, and the perception that dry, on-site sanitation systems are inherently inferior. The basic purpose of any sanitation system is to contain human excreta (chiefly faeces) and prevent the spread of infectious diseases, while avoiding damage to the environment. An alternative sanitation technology known as urine-diversion (UD) performs these functions with fewer operational and maintenance problems than those associated with conventional VIP toilets, (for example, it is a major and expensive operation to desludge full pits, which is not the case with UD toilets as the vaults can be quickly and easily emptied using hand tools) and also provides a free, easily accessible and valuable agricultural resource for those who wish to use it. This technology represents one aspect of an approach, or philosophy, termed “ecological sanitation” or “ecosan.” Key features of ecosan are prevention of pollution and disease caused by human excreta, treatment of human excreta as a resource rather than as waste, and recovery and recycling of the nutrients. In nature, excreta from humans and animals play an essential role in building healthy soils and providing valuable nutrients for plants. Conventional approaches to sanitation misplace these nutrients, dispose of them and break this cycle. UD systems have been successfully implemented in many countries, including South Africa where more than 60 000 of these toilets have been built since 1997. However, despite much research having been carried out internationally and locally, various questions still remain, particularly on the health aspects of operation, maintenance, and excreta use or disposal. Not enough is known about the dehydrating processes taking place inside the faeces vault, and there is still disagreement on safe retention periods and microbiological stability of the final product. The roles of dryness, pH, temperature and time in pathogen destruction also need to be further clarified. In addition, it is critically important that toilet users are able to operate and maintain their systems easily and safely, particularly while emptying the vaults and recycling or otherwise dealing with the contents. Engineers need to understand and take all these issues into consideration before they can properly design and implement sustainable UD sanitation systems. It is therefore important to develop guidelines for sanitation practitioners that set out best practices for construction and operation of UD toilets. Construction recommendations are important because good construction facilitates easy operation, and also promotes rapid pathogen destruction. Easy operation in turn directly influences the health risks associated with removing faecal material from the vaults. Handling of faecal material is an aspect inherent in the operation of UD ecological sanitation systems, because emptying of the vault is usually done using hand tools. If the faecal material is also used for agricultural purposes then further handling must of necessity take place. As such, there is a health concern, both for the person(s) handling the material and for the wider public who may be consumers of the fertilised crops. It is therefore necessary that these health concerns be quantified, in order that proper regulation may take place. <b<CONCLUSIONS FROM THE LITERATURE REVIEW The primary aim of sanitation is to prevent the transmission of excreta-related diseases. However, with all sanitation systems there is a risk of disease transmission related to the handling or use of the end product. Therefore, even a well functioning system could enhance pathogen survival and lead to an increased risk of disease transmission for those handling the end products or consuming crops fertilised with them. A greater understanding of pathogen die-off in dry sanitation systems is required where handling and/or use of excreta are expected. Pathogen destruction in dry sanitation systems, particularly in the vaults of urine-diversion (UD) toilets, is mainly dependent on storage time, pH, temperature, humidity, moisture content, organic content of the faecal material, and type of bulking agent added. It is of utmost importance to ensure that the material is safe to handle. This implies that the primary treatment in the vault should, as far as possible, ensure the required level of safety. While much research has been carried out internationally into pathogen destruction in the vaults of UD toilets, the same cannot be said of South Africa. There is also a wide range of results and conclusions, with recommended storage times varying from six months to two years. Construction and operational guidelines are required in order to assist practitioners in these and other respects. Sound management practices could play an important role in reducing the health risks involved in emptying the vaults of UD toilets and the disposal or further use of faecal material. From the public health viewpoint, it is necessary to reduce, as far as possible, the risk of handling faecal material. To do this, a better understanding of the factors influencing pathogen die-off in the vaults is required. FOCUS OF THIS THESIS The primary aim of this thesis is to investigate the efficacy of various methods aimed at enhancing pathogen destruction in the vaults of UD toilets, with the aim of (a) establishing the best combination of factors/methods, in particular the vault storage period required, and (b) producing guidelines for the construction, operation and regulation of these systems. The overall purpose of the research is to establish safety criteria for handling of faecal material from UD toilets. FIELD TRIALS: MICROBIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON FOOD CROPS FERTILISED WITH FAECAL MATERIAL FROM URINE-DIVERSION TOILETS Recycling excreta to soils reduces the need for chemical fertilisers; however, pathogens are recycled to humans if improper agricultural practices are followed. Concerns about using faecal material include higher pathogenic content in developing countries compared to that in developed countries. This material, as well as that from other sanitation alternatives in small-scale systems, demands more personal involvement from the users (including handling), which constitutes a higher human exposure level compared to that from conventional piped systems. Nevertheless, it is considered that where the material can improve agricultural productivity, it can contribute to improving the nutritional status of the population, thus improving public health. Although ecosan technology is spreading all over the world, and with it the recycling of excreta to soils, only a few researchers have addressed the problems associated with the revalorization practice or documented the pathogen die-off. Moreover, little data about the microbial quality of ecosan faecal material from developing countries (where the health risks are the highest) are available. The objective of this research was thus to investigate the potential health risks of using faecal material in agriculture by determining the pathogen uptake on the surfaces of the edible portions of the crops. Faecal material of between one and three months old was extracted from a number of UD toilets in the eThekwini (Durban) municipal area. This was used primarily for the experimental work described in the next section, but for the purposes of this particular experiment it was first left in a heap in the open air for a further four months. Thereafter it was used as a soil amendment in the cultivation of spinach and carrots. Detailed microbiological tests were conducted on this material as well as on the in situ soil before sowing and after harvesting, on the irrigation water, and on the harvested crops. Applying different rates of material to spinach and carrots, two common edible crops, it was found that the bacteria and fungi content were only noticeable for the higher application rates (>35t/ha), while the helminth ova content varied, both in leaves and stems, depending on the quantity of material applied. Helminth ova content was, for both crops, more prevalent in leaves, suggesting that the ova adhere preferentially to plants rather than soil. It was thus illustrated that there is a health implication involved in growing edible crops in soils amended with ecosan biosolids. Even if in this case the spinach and carrots were cooked before consumption, normal handling of the crops during harvesting and preparation could have caused infection if personal hygiene was unsatisfactory. It is therefore important that crop growers and consumers, as well as proponents of biosolids use, are aware of the storage and treatment requirements for ecosan biosolids before these are applied to soils where crops are grown. DETAILED INVESTIGATION INTO VAULT PROCESSES It is hypothesised that the most advantageous approach to pathogen destruction in a UD toilet vault is to maximise the effects of various environmental factors, e.g. high pH, high temperature, low moisture, type of bulking agent and storage time. In order to quantify these effects a field experiment was set up consisting of 12 UD toilet vaults, each with a different combination of faeces and bulking agent (soil, ash, wood shavings, NaOH or straw), ventilation (ventpipe / no ventpipe) and vault lid material (concrete, metal or perspex). Faecal material was obtained from UD toilets in the eThekwini area, as described above. Temperature probes, which were connected to a data logger, were inserted in the heaps and the logger monitored over a period of nearly 10 months. This enabled a number of graphs to be drawn illustrating the effect of the above parameters on heap temperature over the experimental period. During the coldest week in winter the mean heap temperatures averaged 16,8°C, while the minimum and maximum averaged 14,8°C and 18,8°C respectively. During the warmest week in summer mean heap temperatures averaged 27,6°C, while the minimum and maximum averaged 25,6°C and 29,3°C respectively. In addition, samples were taken at various intervals from each vault as well as from the main heap of faecal material that was left exposed to the elements. The samples were subjected to microbiological testing in order to quantify the pathogen die-off over time for each vault as well as for the main heap. In the vaults, total coliform reduced by 3 log10 (99,9%) at between 130 and 250 days, faecal coliform between 100 and 250 days, and faecal streptococci from 125 days and longer. In the main heap, these times varied from 115 days for both total and faecal coliform to 140 days for faecal streptococci. Viable Ascaris ova were reduced to zero between 44 and 174 days in the vaults and by 44 days in the main heap. The conclusions drawn from the xperimentation were the following: <ul> <li>Influence of ventpipe Ventilation of the vault by means of a ventpipe does not result in any meaningful difference in either the vault temperature or rate of pathogen die-off.</li> <li>Influence of vault lid material The lid material, and by inference also the material of the vault walls, has no significant effect on the temperature of the heap or the associated pathogen die-off.</li> <li>Type of bulking agent While the type of bulking agent used does not significantly influence the temperature of the faecal material, it does have an effect on the rate of pathogen die-off. The ordinary soil mix was seen to give the best results, and this was ascribed to the effect of competing microorganisms in the soil itself.</li> <li>Influence of sunshine and rain The main heap of material (faeces/soil mix) that was exposed to the elements performed among the best in terms of pathogen die-off. Apart from the influence of competing microorganisms in the soil on the pathogens as described above, this good performance was also ascribed to the effect of UV radiation and alternate wetting/drying and heating/cooling cycles, which suggests that open-air exposure is likely to provide the best treatment.</li></ul> Comparing the results of this research with other local and international research, it appears that there is a great deal of convergence in the results. It is concluded that vaults of UD toilets should be sized for a storage period of 12 months from last use. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND REGULATION OF URINE-DIVERSION TOILETS The standard of UD toilets in South Africa varies greatly. While there are many good examples of the technology, there are also many that have been ill-conceived and are badly built and poorly operated. Project implementers are responsible for the quality of sanitation schemes and should be equipped with the necessary information to oversee the process. The guidelines are aimed at providing implementers with, firstly, the necessary technical information to build good quality UD toilets and, secondly, the basic operation and maintenance tasks that should be conveyed to the toilet owners. Basic regulatory guidelines for the responsible authorities are also given. The guidelines are intended to be a stand-alone document and some repetition of information from earlier chapters is thus unavoidable. The technology of urine diversion is introduced, followed by basic design and construction guidelines, including drawings, for the superstructure and vault of a UD toilet. Both single- and double-vault toilets are discussed. A number of photographs are also provided, illustrating good and bad building practices. Further aspects discussed are requirements for urine pipes and ventilation. Operation and maintenance of UD toilets are subsequently covered. Topics discussed are dehydration, odour, fly control, cleaning of the pedestal, disposal of anal cleansing material, urine collection and disposal, clearing of blockages in urine pipes, and faeces management. The above guidelines are aimed at designers, builders and toilet users. However, organisations responsible for administering public and environmental health, such as Departments of Health, Environmental Affairs, etc, as well as the local and regional authorities that actually implement the sanitation schemes, should become actively involved in regulating the operation of UD toilets, particularly the removal and disposal of faecal material. Some regulatory guidelines are therefore also included to assist these organisations to set uniform (high) standards in their respective jurisdictions. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH RELATED TO THIS THESIS It is deemed important that the field trials conducted in the various vaults as described earlier are repeated in other climatic areas, for example a hot and dry area, as it is likely that different results regarding recommended minimum storage periods will be obtained. This should be supplemented by trials involving co-composting of the faeces mix with other organic material, in order to compare the efficacy of this method with the dehydration process. Further, vault lids made of PVC should be tested for enhancing heat gain in the vaults. Finally, long-tem measurements of heap pH should be made in order to ascertain if high pH amendments (wood ash, lime, etc) do in fact maintain their initial pH level. Additional field trials, similar to those described earlier for spinach and carrots, should be undertaken with a view to making recommendations regarding maximum application rates of faecal material. These should consist of food crops where the edible portions are either in or near to the soil, such as beetroot, onion, potatoes, tomatoes, etc. Trials involving urine should also be considered in order to determine the most advantageous application rate for the various crops. Another important topic is recommended for further research on the subject of UD toilets. At present, virtually all the UD toilets built in the country have been for communities on the lower end of the income scale and who previously had no formal sanitation facility at all or, at best, an unimproved pit toilet. Research carried out by CSIR in a number of communities has revealed people’s resistance to handling their faecal material, while in others it has not been a problem. There is often a general viewpoint in a village that “the municipality must take the faeces away.” However, willingness has also been expressed in some villages to pay for a faeces removal service. For instance, this has borne fruit in an area of Kimberley with UD toilets where householders pay a local resident to remove the faecal material on a regular basis. This is done by means of a wheelbarrow, and the material is stockpiled at a nearby approved facility from where it is destined for co-composting with other municipal waste. However, this has not yet been attempted on a large scale in an area with hundreds, or even thousands, of UD toilets. While a theoretical desktop study has been carried out on the feasibility of setting up a large-scale faeces collection concern, such an enterprise does not yet exist in the country. It is suggested that one be set up utilising a horse- or donkey-drawn cart in a village, or group of villages, with sufficient UD toilets available to ensure that a viable business can be conducted. The cooperation of the particular local authority will be required. If successful faeces collection/disposal services could be established in areas with UD toilets it would greatly enhance the social acceptability, and therefore the viability, of this sanitation technology. / Thesis (PhD(Civil Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Civil Engineering / unrestricted

Toaletten är ett viktigt element och en nödvändighet inom demokrati för att upprätthålla fri rörelse och representation av alla samhällsgrupper, vilket tenderar att överses från en planeringssynvinkel. Syfte med uppsatsen är att förstå hur designen av offentliga rum kan verka inkluderande och/eller exkluderande av olika människors fysiska behov, genom att undersöka tillgänglighet utifrån utformningen av offentliga toaletter. Frågeställningarna fokuserar därmed på kommunala tjänstepersoners arbete samt hur designen av offentliga toaletter tillgodoser olika människors fysiska behov. Uppsatsen utgår ifrån Norrköpings kommun. I uppsatsen har teori om intersektionalitet använts och begreppen inkluderande-, exkluderande- och universell design har haft en central roll. Empiri samlades in genom observationer och intervjuer, vilka analyserades med tematisk analys. Resultatet visar att Norrköpings kommun försöker tillgodose olika typer av behov, men att detta sker i samband med exkluderande designåtgärder. Det finns således svårigheter med att implementera inkluderande- och/eller universell design. / From a planning point of view, the toilets tend to be overlooked despite their importance in a democracy and for people's freedom of movement in society. This study aims to research how design of public spaces can include and/or exclude the physical needs of different people, by focusing on the availability of public toilets. The issue focuses on the work of municipal officials and how the design of public toilets fulfills the physical needs of different people, in the municipality of Norrköping. In the study, the theory of intersectionality and the concepts of inclusion, exclusion and universal design have had a central role. Empirical data were collected through observations and interviews and analyzed with a thematic analysis. The results showed that Norrköping tried to meet different types of needs, but that this takes place in connection with excluding design measures. Thus, there are difficulties in implementing inclusive and/or universal design.

Today, the construction and property sector accounts for close to 40% of the global climate emissions. In Sweden, the waste from the construction industry is almost half of the total waste. That is a major problem and people need to get more aware of and increase the reuse, recycling and circular economy to reduce the climate footprint. The purpose of the study is to establish which materials can be reused to construct a public toilet building. A study has been made to illustrate if a building can be built in only reused materials and products. The goal is thereby to present an illustrated public toilet building with the materials that can be used to construct the building. The goal is also to display obstacles when building with only reused products. Through the use of a case study a public toilet building was designed to be placed in a fairytale world constructed by Aktiebolaget Boll &amp; Stropp. Some of the materials that can be and is reused in the building is brick, glass, wood and procelain products. This case study has proven that it is to a high degree possible to build a public toilet in only reused materials.

Text in Afrikaans / Loosit is a pastoral care model which may be applied to primary school children in South Africa and the use thereof is explored in this research project. Loosit consists of a series of plays as well as a discipleship program. These plays, humoristic yet contextually relevant to children, are done on a set resembling school toilets. Children are encouraged to write to the leading character, Uncle Jani Tor, and to post the letters in the `toilet` post box. Themes focused on in this project are problems with friends, social pressure, problems in the family and death. There is a specific focus on the ethics of Loosit as a model of pastoral care applicable to children. / Practical Theology / M. Th. (Practical Theology)