Le virus de l’hépatite murine de type 3 (MHV3) est un excellent modèle animal pour l’étude des différents désordres immunologiques lors d’infections virales. L’hépatite aiguë fulminante induite par ce virus chez la souris susceptible C57BL/6 se caractérise par la présence de plusieurs foyers nécrotiques et inflammatoires dans le foie associée à une immunodéficience en lymphocytes B et T, tuant les souris entre 3 et 5 jours post-infection. L’évolution rapide de cette maladie virale suggère un débalancement dans les mécanismes de l’immunité naturelle sous le contrôle des cellules NK et NK-T et un bris de l’équilibre entre la tolérance hépatique et la réponse inflammatoire. Afin d’élucider les rôles respectifs des différents mécanismes de la défense innée impliqués dans le développement de l’hépatite aiguë, des infections in vivo ont été réalisées chez des souris C57BL/6 avec la souche pathogène L2-MHV3 ou avec des variants du virus MHV3. Ces derniers possèdent des tropismes différents pour les cellules endothéliales sinusoïdales hépatiques et les cellules de Kupffer, tels que les virus faiblement atténué 51.6-MHV3, fortement atténué CL12-MHV3 et non pathogène YAC-MHV3. Ces études in vivo ont montré une diminution des cellules NK spléniques et myéloïdes suite à une infection avec le virus MHV3. Cette chute en cellules NK spléniques reflète un recrutement de ces cellules au niveau du foie. Par contre, les cellules NK se sont avérées permissives à la réplication virale entraînant un processus d’apoptose suite à la formation de syncétia induits par le virus. Les niveaux de recrutement et d’apoptose des cellules NK et NK-T dans le foie reflètent la pathogénicité des variants MHV3 durant les trois premiers jours de l’infection virale bien que les cellules NK recrutées au niveau du foie maintiennent leur activité cytotoxique. L’ajout des IL-12 et IL-18, qui sont normalement diminués lors de l’hépatite aiguë, provoque une production synergique d’IFN-g par les cellules NK, résultant d’une interaction entre l’activation de la voie p38 MAPK et la réplication virale. Par ailleurs, le récepteur viral CEACAM1a (carcinoembryonic antigen cell adhesion molecule 1a) serait essentiel à cette synergie, mais exercerait aussi une action inhibitrice dans la production de l’IFN-g. D’autre part, les niveaux de production des cytokines immunosuppressives IL-10, TGF-b et PGE2, impliquées dans la tolérance hépatique et particulièrement produites par les cellules de Kupffer et les cellules endothéliales sinusoïdales, sont en relation inverse avec le degré de pathogénicité des variants du virus MHV3. Finalement, le virus pathogène L2-MHV3 déclenche la production de cytokines inflammatoires par les macrophages, tels que l’IL-6 et le TNF-a. L’induction de ces cytokines par les macrophages serait indépendante de la présence de la molécule CEACAM1a. Cette stimulation est plutôt reliée à la fixation des particules virales sur des récepteurs TLR2, en association avec les régions riches en héparanes sulfates. Tous ces résultats mettent en évidence de nouveaux mécanismes par lesquels le virus MHV3 peut diminuer l’efficacité des mécanismes de l’immunité naturelle sous le contrôle des cellules NK et NK-T intrahépatiques, suite à une stimulation de l’inflammation résultant du bris de la tolérance hépatique. / Mouse hepatitis virus type 3 (MHV3) is an excellent model to study immunological disorders related to viral infections. The fulminant acute hepatitis induced in susceptible C57BL/6 mice is characterized by the presence of necrotic and inflammatory foci in the liver associated with B and T cell immunodeficiencies leading to the death of the animals in 3 to 5 days post-infection. The fulminance of this viral infection suggests a deficiency in the natural immunity mechanisms under control of NK and NK-T cells and an imbalance between the hepatic tolerance and the inflammatory responses. To understand the different mechanisms involved in the acute hepatitis, in vivo infections have been done in C57BL/6 mice with either the pathogenic L2-MHV3, or with its attenuated variants: the weak attenuated 51.6-MHV3, the highly attenuated CL12-MHV3 or the non-pathogenic YAC-MHV3 viruses, possessing different tropisms for liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and Kupffer cells. The results demonstrate that splenic and myeloid NK cells are impaired during a MHV3 infection. This impairment is due to a recruitment of these cells in the liver and a virus-induced apoptotic phenomenon. The recruitment and the subsequent apoptosis of NK and NK-T cells during the first three days of infection are in relation with the pathogenicity of the MHV3 variants. In spite of the fact that hepatic recruited NK cells are still cytotoxic, these cells undergo apoptosis due to viral replication via the formation of syncytia. Addition of IL-12 and IL-18, which are impaired during the acute hepatitis, promote a synergistic IFN-g production by NK cells depending of both the p38 MAPK pathway and the viral replication. Moreover, the specific viral receptor CEACAM1a (carcinoembryonic antigen cell adhesion molecule 1a) is essential for this response but also exerts an inhibitory action. Levels of the immunosuppressive cytokines IL-10, TGF-b and PGE2, mainly produced by Kupffer cells and sinusoidal endothelial cells, and implicated in the natural hepatic tolerance, are in inverse correlation with the pathogenicity of the MHV3 variants. Finally, viral infection promotes the secretion of IL-6 and TNF-a by macrophages, triggered by the fixation of viral particules to TLR2 and heparan sulfate receptors rather than the engagement of CEACAM1a receptor and viral replication. In conclusion, our results suggest new mechanisms by which the MHV3 virus disturbs the innate immunity under control of NK and NK-T cells, as well as the cytokines involved in the hepatic tolerance to the detriment of the inflammatory response.

Eine Melanomerkrankung im metastasierten Stadium ist heute noch eine nicht heilbare und in den meisten Fällen tödlich verlaufende Erkrankung. Über 50% der Patienten mit metastasierendem malignen Melanom entwickeln Lungenmetastasen. Nach dem Auftreten von Lungenmetastasen beträgt die durchschnittliche Überlebenszeit noch 7,3 Monate. Demnach ist die Entwicklung von Therapiestrategien notwendig, um das Fortschreiten von Tumormetastasen oder sogar deren Entstehung zu verhindern. Die lokale Stimulation der angeborenen Immunabwehr durch Behandlung mit Toll-like-Rezeptor-Agonisten käme hierfür in Frage. Inhalative Behandlungen mit Immunmodulatoren, wie sie für IL-2 beschrieben wurden, könnten insbesondere für die Behandlung pulmonaler Metastasen genutzt werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde das pulmonale angeborene Immunsystem im Mausmodell durch den TLR2/6-Agonisten MALP-2 stimuliert und die Auswirkung dieser Immunstimulation auf experimentell induzierte pulmonale Melanommetastasen untersucht. Intratracheale Instillationen von 0,5 µg MALP-2 führten zu starker Einwanderung neutrophiler Granulozyten (6-fach) und Makrophagen (3,4-fach) in die Lunge von C57/BL6-Mäusen. Innerhalb von 24 h war das Maximum der Immunzelleinwanderung erreicht. Der Leukozyteneinstrom fiel dann innerhalb von 72 h wieder auf das Ursprungsniveau zurück. Weitere Untersuchungen konnten zeigen, dass MALP-2 auch zu einer deutlichen Steigerung der Expression von VCAM-1 in pulmonalen Blutgefäßen führt. In vitro Experimente zeigten, dass dieses Adhäsionsmolekül die Bindung von B16-F10-Melanomzellen vermitteln kann.  Außerdem führte die MALP-2-Behandlung weder in vitro noch in vivo zu einer signifikanten Steigerung der Fähigkeit von Immunzellen, B16-F10-Melanomzellen zu lysieren.  So konnte, im Gegensatz zu Rückschlüssen aus früheren Publikationen, trotz der ausgeprägten Stimulation des pulmonalen Immunsystems und unabhängig vom Applikationsregime durch MALP-2 vor oder nach Tumorinokulation im Mausmodell keine signifikante Änderung der pulmonalen Metastasen erreicht werden. Durch Markierung von Melanomzellen, die stabil mit Green fluorescent Protein transfiziert waren, war es möglich, Melanomzellen kurz nach Tumorzellaussaat zu untersuchen. Eine lokale TLR2/6-Aktivierung durch MALP-2-Instillation 24 h vor Tumorinokulation führte aber in vivo zu keiner Beeinflussung des pulmonalen Melanomzellarrests im Mausmodell. Außerdem konnte gezeigt werden, dass auch das „Boostern“ des Immunsystems durch wiederholte intratracheale MALP-2-Applikation an bereits etablierten pulmonalen Metastasen zu keiner Änderung des klinischen Gesamtresultates führt. Zusammenfassend kann festgestellt werden, dass diese teilweise unerwarteten Ergebnisse deutlich machen, dass klinische Vorhersagen bezüglich immunmodulierender Therapien mit Vorsicht zu stellen sind, insbesondere, da multiple, sich wechselseitig beeinflussende Effekte durch die Immunstimulantien selbst das Gesamtergebnis einer Tumortherapie beeinflussen können.

A contribuição de células B para a memória imunológica se dá por duas distintas populações: células B de memória e células produtoras de anticorpos de longa vida (ASC). A inter-relação entre estas células bem como os mecanismos envolvidos para a manutenção destas tem sido pouco entendida. O veneno de Thalassophryne nattereri tem se mostrado capaz de induzir uma intensa resposta imune de memória. Nós avaliamos o efeito das Natterinas, que são as toxinas majoritárias e inéditas, na indução e manutenção da resposta imune de memória de células B. Este estudo, além de permitir um maior esclarecimento da resposta humoral de memória induzida pelo veneno do peixe T. nattereri, permitiu o estudo da complexa organização do compartimento de células B de memória e ASCs. Também evidenciamos a importância da atividade proteásica para a manutenção da cronicidade de resposta de células B no peritônio, no baço e na medula, como verificamos que a ativação de receptores inatos como osTLRs é decisiva para a geração e manutenção de ASCs B220pos/neg em resposta às Natterinas, dependentes das vias de sinalização MyD88 ou TRIF. Estas sinalizações controlam a magnitude, a qualidade e a longa duração da resposta humoral de memória. / The contribution of B cells for the immunological memory feels for two different populations: memory B cells and long-lived antibodies secreting cells (ASC). The interrelation among these cells as well as the mechanisms involved for the maintenance of these it has been little understood. The venom of Thalassophryne nattereri possesses the ability to induce an intense memory immune response. We evaluated the effect of Natterins that are majority toxins in the venom, in the induction and maintenance of the immune memory response of cells B. The study, besides allowing a larger explanation of the humoral memory response induced by the venom of the fish, it allowed the understanding of the complex organization of the memory B cells compartment, mainly of the subtype of long-lived cells (ASC). Also, we showed the importance of the protease activity of Natterins in the maintenance of the chronic B cell responses in the three analyzed compartments. We verify that the activation of Toll like receptors is decisive for the generation and maintenance of ASCs B220pos/neg in response to Natterins, dependent on the MyD88 or TRIF signaling that control the quality and the duration of the humoral memory response.

Mycobacteria are multifaceted pathogens capable of causing both acute disease as well as an asymptomatic latent infection. Host immune responses during mycobacterial infection involve potent cell effector functions including that of CD4+, CD8+ and γδT cells, macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs). Further, the critical regulators of protective immunity to mycobacterial infection include IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-23, TNF-α, lymphotoxins, CD40, nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species. However, the success of mycobacterial infection often relies in its ability to evade immune surveillance mechanisms mediated by sentinels of host immunity by modulating host signal transduction pathways and expression of immunoregulatory molecules. Therefore, the key to control mycobacterial growth and limit pathogenesis lies in the understanding the interactions between Mycobacterium and primary responders like macrophages and DCs. In this scenario, the role of pattern recognition receptors (PPRs) in orchestrating host immune responses assumes central importance. The cell surface receptors play crucial role in influencing overall immune responses. Of the PRRs, the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) form key immune surveillance mechanisms in recognition as well as control of mycobacterial infection. Among them, TLR2 is the primary interacting receptor on antigen presenting cells that recognize the invading mycobacteria. Mycobacterial cell wall constituents such as LAM, LM, PIM and 19-kDa protein have been shown to activate TLR2 signaling leading to proinflammatory responses. Recent reports have suggested that PE_PGRS antigens of M. tuberculosis interact with TLR2. For example, RV0754, Rv0978c, RV1917c have been implicated in modulation of human DCs. The 19-kDa lipoprotein, LpqH (Rv3763) and LprG (Rv1411c) utilize TLR2 signaling to inhibit macrophage responsiveness to IFN-γ triggered MHC class II expression and mycobacterial antigen presentation. Interestingly, recognition and amplification of pathogenic-specific signaling events play important roles in not only discriminating the invading microbes, but also in regulating explicit immune responses. In this context, integration of key signaling centers, which modulate host immunity to pathogenic mycobacterial infections, remains unexplored. In accordance to above observations, signal transduction pathways downstream to TLRs play a critical role in modulation of battery of host cells genes in terms of expression and production of immune modulatory cytokines and chemokines, recruitment of cellular machineries to site of infections etc. This suggests the decisive role for TLRs in modulation of host cell fate decisions. However, during the ensuing immunity to invading pathogens, beside TLR signaling pathways, various other signaling molecules are thought to execute specific functions in divergent cellular contexts. Recent studies from our laboratory have clearly demarcated a novel cross talk of TLR2-NOTCH1 and TLR2-Wnt signaling pathways during mycobacterial infections. The current study primary focuses on the broad range of cross talk of TLR2 and Sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling pathways and its functional significance. The present investigation demonstrates that M. bovis BCG, a vaccine strain, triggers a robust activation of SHH signaling in macrophages compared to infection with diverse Gram-positive or Gram-negative microbes. This observation was further evidenced by the heightened SHH signaling signatures during in vivo scenario in cells /tissues from pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) individuals as well as tuberculous meningitis (TBM) patients. Furthermore, we show that the sustained TNF-α secretion by macrophages upon infection with M. bovis BCG is a critical necessity for SHH activation. Significantly, perturbation studies implicate a vital role for M. bovis BCG stimulated TLR2/PI3K/PKC/MAPK/NF-κB axis to induce TNF-α, that contributes to enhance SHH signaling. The TNF-α driven SHH signaling downregulates M. bovis BCG induced TLR2 signaling events leading to modulation of battery of genes that regulate various functions of macrophages genes like Vegf-a, Socs-3, Cox-2, Mmp-9 and M1/M2 genes. Importantly, utilizing whole-genome microRNA (miRNA) profiling, roles for specific miRNAs were identified as the molecular regulators that bring about the negative-feedback loop comprising TLR2-SHH signaling events. Thus, the current study illustrates how SHH signaling tightly regulates the kinetics and strengths of M. bovis BCG specific TLR2 responses, emphasizing a novel role for SHH signaling in host immune responses to mycobacterial infections. As described, variety of host factors contributes for ensuing effective host defenses and modulation of host cell fate decisions. Interestingly, avirulent pathogenic mycobacteria, including the vaccine strain M. bovis BCG, unlike virulent M. tuberculosis, cause extensive apoptosis of infected macrophages, which suggests a significant contribution of the apoptosis process to the initiation and subsequent amplification of innate as well as adaptive immune responses. Among various cues that could lead to apoptosis of host cells, the initiation of the apoptotic machinery by posttranscriptional mechanisms assumes significant importance. Among posttranscriptional control mechanisms, miRNAs are suggested to regulate several biological processes including immune responses. Various effectors of host immunity are known to be regulated by several miRNAs, and a prominent one among them, miRNA-155 (miR-155), often exhibits crucial roles during innate or adaptive immune responses. In this perspective, we identified a novel role of miR-155 during M. bovis BCG induced apoptosis of macrophages. The genetic and signaling perturbations data suggested that miR-155 regulates PKA signaling by directly targeting a negative regulator of PKA, protein kinase inhibitor alpha (PKI-α). Enhanced activation of PKA signaling resulted in induced expression of the apoptotic genes as well as Caspase-3 cleavage and Cytochrome c translocation. Thus, augmented PKA signaling by M. bovis BCG-driven miR-155 dictates cell fate decisions of infected macrophages, emphasizing a novel role for miR-155 in host immunity to mycobacterial infections. In perspective of these studies, important directives are often comprised of sequential and coordinated activation of TLR and NLR-driven signal transduction pathways, thus exhibiting foremost influence in determining the overall strength of the innate immune responses. As described, TLR2 exhibits dominant role in sensing various agonists including pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) of microbes at the cell surface and generally considered as major effectuator of proinflammatory responses. Interestingly, NLRs like NOD1 or NOD2 often act in contrary, thus regulating anti-inflammatory responses as well as polarization of T cells towards skewed Th2 phenotype. This presents an interesting conundrum to functionality of DCs or macrophages in terms of effector functions during rapidly evolving immunological processes including effects originating from immunosuppressive effectors such as CTLA-4 or TGF-. DCs like macrophages are important sentinels of innate immunity, possesses array of PRRs that include TLRs and NOD-like receptors (NLRs). Signaling events associated with innate sensors like TLRs and NLRs often act as regulatory circuits that modulate the overall functions of DCs in terms of maturation process, cytokine or chemokine production, receptor expression, migration to secondary lymphoid organs for antigen presentation for effectuating Th polarization. TLR2, while acting as sensors for extracellular cues or endocytic network, drives signaling events in response to recognition of PAMPs including mycobacterial antigens like ESAT-6, PE_PGRS antigens, while NOD1 and NOD2 operate as cytosolic sensors initiating signaling pathways upon recognition of diaminopimelic acid (DAP) and muramyl dipeptide (MDP), components of bacterial peptidoglycan. Thus, TLRs or NOD receptors could trigger similar or contrasting immune responses by cooperative or non-cooperative sensing, consequently exhibiting immense complexity during combinatorial triggering of host DCs-PRR repertoire. In view of these observations, our current investigation comprehensively demonstrated that maturation process of human DCs were cooperatively regulated by signaling cascades initiated by engagements of TLR2, NOD1 and NOD2 receptors. Importantly, combined triggering of TLR2 and NOD receptors abolished the TGF-β or CTLA-4-mediated impairment of human DCs maturation, which required critical participation of NOTCH1-PI3K signaling cohorts. Thus, our data delineated the novel insights in modulation of macrophages and DCs effector functions by mycobacterial TLR2 or NOD agonists and broaden our understanding on the signal dynamics and integration of multiple signals from PRRs during mycobacterial infections. Altogether, our findings establish the understanding of conceptual frame work in fine tuning of TLR2 responses by SHH signaling as well as potential co-operativity among TLRs and NODs to modulate NOTCH1 dependent DCs maturation. Importantly, our study provides mechanistic and functional insights into various molecular regulators of macrophage cell fate decisions like miR-31. miR-150 and miR-155, which can fuel the search for attractive and effective drug targets and novel therapeutics to combat diseases of the hour like tuberculosis.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) represent innate immune cells capable to detect viruses in their endosomal environment via Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Viral nuclear acid recognition leads to the massive production of type I interferon (IFN I) and induction of the antiviral state in uninfected cells. Crosslinking of the surface regulatory receptors, such as BDCA-2, with monoclonal antibodies or with some viruses leads to the activation of MEK1/2- ERK signaling pathway and inhibition of IFN I production in pDC. In this study, the role of MEK1/2 kinase has been highlighted. Its inhibition reversed the inhibitory effect of BDCA-2 crosslinking and its direct activation with PMA led to the inhibition of IFN-α production. Yet an unclear role of pDC in sensing of BK polyomavirus virus (BKV) responsible for kidney transplant rejection was investigated as a major topic of this thesis. Experiments with the pDC cell line Gen2.2 and HRPTEC primary cell line showed that pDCs were not able to detect BKV particles, however, exposure of activated Gen2.2 cells to BKV inoculum dramatically upregulated production of IFN-α. Most importantly, coculture of Gen2.2 cells with BKV- infected HRPTEC cells resulted in IFN-α and TNF-α production, which was prevented by Bafilomycin. These results suggest that BKV-infected...

Les récepteurs de type Toll (TLR) sont des récepteurs cellulaires jouant un rôle pivot dans le déclenchement de la réponse immunitaire après une infection ou une blessure, c'est-à-dire une inflammation. L'activation de la signalisation TLR a été associée à l’épilepsie. Dans ce projet, j'utilisai trois modèles distincts pour étudier comment le déclenchement des TLR contribue à l'épileptogenèse. Il existe une corrélation entre les malformations corticales développementales telle la dysplasie corticale focale (FCD) et convulsions fébriles dans les enfants de bas âge. Récemment, une réponse neuro-inflammatoire fut identifiée dans les lésions FCD. Nous postulâmes que l'inflammation induite par le FCD peut augmenter la sensibilité aux crises (chapitre 2). Nous modélisâmes FCD en induisant une congélation-lésion corticale chez le rat néonatal. La lésion corticale déclencha des effecteurs en aval de TLR4, spécifiquement le précurseur de la cytokine Caspase-1, dans l'hippocampe ipsilatéral à la lésion. Les rats lésés développèrent des crises fébriles expérimentales nettement plus rapidement que les rats témoins. Le blocage de l'activité de la Caspase-1 prolongea significativement la latence des crises chez les rats lésés. Nos résultats impliquent l'inflammation médiée par la Caspase-1 en tant que déclencheur des crises fébriles chez les enfants avec FCD préexistante. Des études antérieures déterminèrent que l'activation systémique de la cascade TLR4 abaisse le seuil de crise. Nous étudiâmes si la pénétration des cellules immunitaires périphériques dans le cerveau pendant la stimulation TLR4 favorise l'activité ictal en stimulant la voie TLR4 dans les leucocytes prélevés sur la rate de rat (splénocytes). Ensuite, nous co-cultivâmes des splénocytes avec des coupes organotypiques dérivées du cerveau in vitro (chapitre 3). L'ajout de splénocytes stimulés par TLR4 donna lieu à une neuro-inflammation et à une excitation neuronale accrue. L’ajout de splénocytes non-stimulés n’eut aucun effet pro-inflammatoire ou pro-excitateur dans les coupes organotypiques. De plus, l'inhibition de la Caspase-1 dans des coupes organotypiques co-cultivées avec des splénocytes stimulés diminua la neuro-inflammation et l'hyperexcitabilité neuronale. Nos résultats suggèrent que l'infiltration de leucocytes activés par TLR4 dans le cerveau augmente la prédisposition aux crises via les mécanismes médiés par la Caspase-1. Précédemment, des rapports montrèrent que l'activation de la signalisation TLR3 facilite l'évolution des crises. L'introduction d'un agoniste synthétique TLR3 chez la souris in vivo et des coupes organotypiques hippocampiques in vitro produisirent des mécanismes anti-inflammatoires dépendants de la dose et du temps (chapitre 4). La stimulation TLR3 supprimait les crises d'hippocampe in vivo et réduisait l'excitabilité synaptique dans le réseau hippocampique à la fois in vivo et in vitro. Nous avons déterminé que les effets anticonvulsivants médiés par TLR3 étaient principalement provoqués par les cascades en aval IRF3 / IFN-β. Ainsi, nos données suggèrent que l'activation de TLR3 peut protéger le cerveau contre les crises par la production d'IFN-β. Nos résultats donnent un aperçu des nouveaux mécanismes cellulaires sous-jacents à la modulation inflammatoire de l'excitabilité neurale. Notre découverte des rôles de la Caspase-1 et de l'IFN-β dans l'influence du seuil de crise améliorera notre compréhension des fondements moléculaires de la génération de crises ce qui pourraient améliorer le traitement de l'épilepsie. / Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are cellular receptors that play a pivotal role in initiating immune response following infection or injury, i.e. inflammation. Nevertheless, activation of TLR signaling has been associated with seizure manifestation. In this research, I employed three distinct models to study how triggering TLRs contributes to ictogenesis. There is a correlation between developmental cortical malformations, e.g. focal cortical dysplasia (FCD), and fever-provoked, i.e. febrile, seizures in young children. Recently, neuroinflammation was reported in FCD lesions. Therefore, we posited that FCD-induced inflammation may increase seizure susceptibility (Chapter 2). To recapitulate FCD pathology, we induced a cortical freeze-lesion in neonatal rats. Lesioning the cortex triggered TLR4 downstream effectors, specifically the cytokine precursor Caspase-1, in the hippocampus ipsilateral to the lesion. Further, lesioned rats developed experimental febrile seizures markedly faster than sham control rats. Strikingly, blocking Caspase-1 activity prior to seizure induction significantly prolonged seizure latency in lesioned rats. Our results implicate Caspase-1-mediated inflammation as a main driver of febrile seizures in children with pre-existing brain malformations. In addition, previous reports determined that systemic activation of TLR4 cascade lowers seizure threshold. Hence, we developed an in vitro model to investigate whether penetration of peripheral immune cells into the brain during TLR4 stimulation promotes ictogenic activity (Chapter 3). First, we stimulated TLR4 pathway in leukocytes harvested from rat spleen, i.e. splenocytes. Thereafter, we co-cultured splenocytes with brain-derived organotypic slices in vitro. Adding TLR4-stimulated splenocytes gave rise to neuroinflammation and enhanced neuronal excitation, whereas adding unstimulated splenocytes failed to evoke pro-inflammatory or proexcitatory effects in organotypic slices. Moreover, Caspase-1 inhibition in organotypic slices cocultured with stimulated splenocytes diminished neuroinflammation and neuronal hyperexcitability. Our findings suggest that infiltration of TLR4-activated leukocytes into the brain elevate seizure predisposition via Caspase-1-mediated mechanisms. Beside TLR4 pathway, it was previously shown that activation of TLR3 signaling facilitates seizure evolution. In chapter 4, introducing a synthetic TLR3 agonist to mice in vivo and to hippocampal organotypic slices in vitro yielded anti-inflammatory mechanisms in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Also, we found that TLR3 stimulation suppressed hippocampal seizures in vivo and reduced synaptic excitability in the hippocampal network both in vivo and in vitro. Finally, we determined that TLR3-mediated anticonvulsive effects were chiefly driven by IRF3/IFN-β downstream cascades. Thus, our data suggests that TLR3 activation may protect the brain from seizures through production of IFN-β. Altogether, our findings provide insight into novel cellular mechanisms underlying inflammatory modulation of neural excitability. Furthermore, our discovery of the roles of Caspase-1 and IFN-β in influencing seizure threshold will improve our understanding of the molecular underpinnings of seizure generation, which may ultimately have therapeutic benefits for epilepsy treatment.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) are a highly specialized subset of immune cells that sense viral nucleic acids by endosomal toll-like receptors 7 and 9 (TLR7/9). Activation of TLR7/9 leads to the production of type I interferons (IFN-I). Moreover, pDC contribute to the antiviral response by presenting viral antigens to T lymphocytes and link innate and adaptive immunity. pDC need to be properly regulated in order to limit excessive production of IFN-I that is associated with autoimmune diseases. Therefore, pDC possess a battery of regulatory receptors (RR) that limit TLR7/9-mediated cytokine production. This thesis focuses on the mechanism of RR-mediated inhibition of IFN-I production in pDC and explores interactions between pDC and two enveloped viruses, that possess the ability to hijack RR in pDC: hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). We showed, that MEK-ERK signaling pathway plays an active role in RR-mediated inhibition of IFN-I in pDC. Our results indicate that in line with other studies of our group, pharmacological targeting of MEK1/2-ERK signaling could be a strategy to re-establish immunogenic activity of pDC. Then, we investigated whether antiretroviral therapy (ART) in a cohort of 21 treatment-naive chronic HIV-infected patients has restored the number and...

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) represent innate immune cells capable to detect viruses in their endosomal environment via Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Viral nuclear acid recognition leads to the massive production of type I interferon (IFN I) and induction of the antiviral state in uninfected cells. Crosslinking of the surface regulatory receptors, such as BDCA-2, with monoclonal antibodies or with some viruses leads to the activation of MEK1/2- ERK signaling pathway and inhibition of IFN I production in pDC. In this study, the role of MEK1/2 kinase has been highlighted. Its inhibition reversed the inhibitory effect of BDCA-2 crosslinking and its direct activation with PMA led to the inhibition of IFN-α production. Yet an unclear role of pDC in sensing of BK polyomavirus virus (BKV) responsible for kidney transplant rejection was investigated as a major topic of this thesis. Experiments with the pDC cell line Gen2.2 and HRPTEC primary cell line showed that pDCs were not able to detect BKV particles, however, exposure of activated Gen2.2 cells to BKV inoculum dramatically upregulated production of IFN-α. Most importantly, coculture of Gen2.2 cells with BKV- infected HRPTEC cells resulted in IFN-α and TNF-α production, which was prevented by Bafilomycin. These results suggest that BKV-infected...

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 2005. / Typescript (photocopy).