Scarabaeus (Pachysoma) consists of 13 flightless dung beetle species endemic to the arid west coast of southern Africa. Scarabaeus (Pachysoma) are unique in their feeding and foraging habits, in that they randomly search for dry dung/detritus which, when found, is dragged forwards, and buried in a pre-constructed holding chamber, as opposed to the convention of rolling it backwards. This action is repeated to provision the chamber after which the nest is expanded to below the moisture line to allow the stored food to re-hydrate. Poor vagility, taxonomic contention - seen in Scarabaeus taxonomy - and conservation concern, made Scarabaeus (Pachysoma) an ideal group of beetles to study both the phylogenetics and potential influences that anthropogenic and environmental changes have had on structuring the species and populations thereof. Both molecular and morphological data were used as individual datasets and combined in a total evidence approach. Biogeographic inferences were made based on recent detailed Namib biogeography and the ages of the species were estimated using the molecular clock method. A phylogeographic study was done on three of the species of Scarabaeus (Pachysoma) – S. (P.) hippocrates, S. (P.) gariepinus and S. (P.) denticollis - that had previously shown south-north morphological clinal variation. Lastly, an attempt was made to isolate microsatellite loci for Scarabaeus, in the hope of characterising genetic diversity within and between populations of the same species. Scarabaeus (Pachysoma) was found to be monophyletic within Scarabaeus and was therefore classified as a derived subgenus thereof. Morphologically Scarabaeus (Pachysoma) was shown to have 13 species while at a molecular level strong resolution for 11 of the 13 was obtained. S. (P.) hippocrates and S. (P.) glentoni formed a species complex the hippocrates/glentoni complex. The combined phylogenetic tree showed good overall support for all 13 species. Both the morphological and molecular data partition phylogenies show congruence with the combined phylogeny, lending support for combining datasets. Scarabaeus (Pachysoma) appears to have arisen 2.9 million years ago. The formation of advective fog is a consistent water source for Desert dwelling organisms and appears to be associated with Scarabaeus (Pachysoma) radiation into inhospitable areas. Analysis of gene flow revealed large amounts of south-north movement, lending support for movement of psammophilous taxa with their substratum, the barchan dune. Population demographics of the three species, S. (P.) hippocrates, S. (P.) gariepinus and S. (P.) denticollis, chosen for this study differed greatly except in areas of geographic similarity. Major rivers appear to have acted as gene barriers, allowing for distinct genetic entities to be identified within the three species. Phylogeographic partitioning was supported by an AMOVA analysis. All three species were shown to have undergone historical population expansion dating back to the Pleistocene era. Nested Clade Analysis indicated that allopatric speciation; isolation by distance and continuous range expansion could be the factors having affected overall population structure. Recent events show that human induced factors, environmental barriers and reduced vagility have influenced the species population structure. Four potentially polymorphic loci were isolated for Scarabaeus using the FIASCO protocol. Identification of at least one additional locus is needed in order to obtain statistical significance for future studies directed at uncovering recent population dynamics. / Thesis (PhD (Entomology))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

Chapter 1. The family Pteronarcyidae (Plecoptera) is a highly studied group of stoneflies and very important to a wide variety of aquatic studies. Several phylogenies have been proposed for this group recent decades, however there is little congruence between the various topologies. The present study revises the phylogeny of the group by combining molecular data from mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit II, ribosomal subunit 12S, ribosomal subunit 16S, and nuclear loci ribosomal subinit 18S and Histone H3, with published morphological data in a parsimony-based total evidence analysis. The analysis produced a well-supported phylogeny with novel relationships within the genus Pteronarcys. Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian analyses produced topologies congruent with parsimony analysis. Character mapping revealed several homoplasious morphological characters that were previously thought to be homologous. Chapter 2. Phylogeographic studies in aquatic insects provide valuable insights into mechanisms that shape the genetic structure of aquatic communities. Yet studies that include broad geographic areas are uncommon for this group. We conducted a broad scale phylogeographic analysis of P. badia across western North America. In order to allow us to generate a larger mitochondrial data set, we used 454 seqeuncing to reconstruct the complete mitochondrial genome in the early stages of the project. Our analysis reveals what appears to be a complex history of isolation and multiple invasions among some lineages. The study provides evidence of multiple glacial refugia and suggests that historical climactic isolations have been important mechanisms in determining genetic structure of insects in western North America. Our ability to generate a large mitochondrial data set through mitochondrial genome reconstruction greatly improved nodal support of our mitochondrial gene tree, and allowed us to make stronger inference of relationships between lineages and timing of divergence events.

A família de Siluriformes Neotropicais Cetopsidae possui cinco gêneros e 43 espécies válidas, com ampla distribuição nas regiões norte e central da América do Sul, tanto cis- como trans-andina. Cetopsidae é proposta como um grupo monofilético, suportado pela maioria dos estudos morfológicos e moleculares. Os estudos evolutivos sobre o sistema nervoso de bagres neotropicais são bastante escassos, apesar desse complexo apresentarimportantes modificações potencialmente informativas para estudos de inferência filogenética. Para testar a significância dos caracteres neuroanatômicos em filogenias, a morfologia externa das principais subdivisões encefálicas de Cetopsidae foi descrita, ilustrada e interpretada. Além disso, análises comparativas do desenvolvimento desse complexo foram realizadas em Helogenes marmoratus e Cetopsis gobioides com o intuito de estabelecer homologias e compreender suas modificações ontogenéticas. Os caracteres foram delimitados e testados separadamente em análises filogenéticas e posteriormente combinados com caracteres morfológicos e moleculares com diferentes métodos de análise. Para determinar o volume de cada região analisada, um modelo elipsoide foi utilizado. Amplas comparações baseadas no formato, posição relativa e volume das principais regiões encefálicas são apresentadas para a maioria das espécies representativas de todos os gêneros de Cetopsidae. As mesmas comparações também foram realizadas ao longo do desenvolvimento de Helogenes marmoratus e Cetopsis gobioides. Além disso, comparações com integrantes de outras famílias filogeneticamente relacionadas em Siluriformes forneceram um amplo contexto para um maior entendimento das principais modificações evolutivas que moldaram o encéfalo doscetopsídeos. Análises filogenéticas de todos os caracteres morfológicos foram primeiramente conduzidas em separado, e posteriormente em matrizes concatenadas sob o critério da Parcimônia. Análises Bayesianas com sequências alinhadas e concatenadas de três genes mitocondriais (COI, 16S e Cytb) foram implementadas. Por fim, análises filogenéticas com todos os dados combinados foram conduzidas sob os critérios da Parcimônia e Bayesiano. Padrões morfológicos distintos foram definidos para cada uma das duas principais subdivisões de Cetopsidae, as subfamílias Helogeninae e Cetopsinae. Poucas variações intraespecíficas na morfologia externa do encéfalo xii existem entre todas as espécies examinadas aqui. As modificações observadas ao longo do desenvolvimento do encéfalo de Helogenes marmoratus e Cetopsis gobioides foram utilizadas para a formulação correta de caracteres e seus estados. Todos os gêneros foram recuperados como grupos monofiléticos pelos caracteres neuroanatômicos.Mapeamentos filogenéticos revelaram alguns padrões morfológicos sugestivos com especializações alimentares e outras características de história de vida correlacionadas ao sistema nervoso central. Os caracteres morfológicos e moleculares se mostraram bastante congruentes nas hipóteses filogenéticas, comas incongruências restritas à tribo Cetopsini. Todas as análises recuperaram Helogeninae como grupo-irmão dos demais cetopsídeos, seguido por Cetopsidiini, Denticetopsini e Cetopsini como grupos-irmãos sucessivos.Os resultados obtidos no presente estudo suportam a ideia de que análises amplas e concatenadas de dados morfológicos e moleculares resultam em hipóteses de relacionamentos robustas e bem suportadas. Os caracteres neuroanatômicos são altamente informativos para inferências filogenéticas, que podem ser exploradospara uma maior compreensão da evolução de Otophysi. / The Neotropical South American catfish Cetopsidae is a family of Siluriformes that includes five genera and 43valid species distributed over a large portion of northern and central regions of South America, on both sides of the Andean cordilleras. The monophyly of the family is supported by several previous studies, based on both morphological and molecular characters. Despite the scarcity of evolutionary studies on the nervous system of neotropical catfishes, that complex shows great variation potentially informative for phylogenetic inference. In order to test the significance of neurological traits in a phylogenetic framework, the gross morphology of brain subdivisions in the catfish family Cetopsidae is described, illustrated and interpreted. In addition, comparative analyzes of the development of this complex were carried out in Helogenes marmoratus and Cetopsis gobioidesin order to establish homologies and ontogenetic transformations. Characters were delimited and tested separately in phylogenetic analyzes and later combined with other morphological and molecular characters with different methods of analysis. The volume of major brain subdivision was calculated by an ellipsoid model. A comprehensive comparison based on shape, relative position, and volume of the main brain subdivisions is presented for representative species of all genera and most available species in the family. The same comparisons were also made throughout the development of Helogenes marmoratus and Cetopsis gobioides. Comparisons with other phylogenetically related siluriform families provide a broader context for the understanding of the main evolutionary transformations which shaped the cetopsid brain. Phylogenetic analyzes of all morphological characters were first conducted separately, and later in matrices concatenated under the Parsimony criterion. Bayesian analyzes of three aligned and concatenated mitochondrial gene sequences (COI, 16S and Cytb) were implemented. Analyzes of all the data combined were conducted under both Parsimony and Bayesian criteria. Profoundly distinct morphological patterns are identified for each of the two main cetopsid subdivisions, subfamilies Helogeninae and Cetopsinae. Little intraspecific variation on major subdivisions of the brain exists in species examined herein. The modifications observed throughout the development of the brain inHelogenes marmoratus and Cetopsis gobioides were used for the correct delimitation xiv of characters and their states. The monophyly of all genera is supported by putative neuroanatomic characters. Phylogenetic mapping reveals recurrent morphological patterns suggestive of an association with specific feeding specializations and other life-history traits. Morphological and molecular characters were highly congruent in phylogenetic hypotheses, with inconsistencies restricted to the tribe Cetopsini. All analyzes recovered Helogeninae as thesister group toall remaining cetopsids, followed by Cetopsidiini, Denticetopsini and Cetopsini as successive sister groups. Results of the present study support the idea that large and concatenated analyzes of morphological and molecular characters result in robust well-supported hypotheses of relationships. Neuroanatomical characters are highly informative for phylogenetic inferenceand area promising field to be explored in understanding the evolution of Otophysi.

A família de Siluriformes Neotropicais Cetopsidae possui cinco gêneros e 43 espécies válidas, com ampla distribuição nas regiões norte e central da América do Sul, tanto cis- como trans-andina. Cetopsidae é proposta como um grupo monofilético, suportado pela maioria dos estudos morfológicos e moleculares. Os estudos evolutivos sobre o sistema nervoso de bagres neotropicais são bastante escassos, apesar desse complexo apresentarimportantes modificações potencialmente informativas para estudos de inferência filogenética. Para testar a significância dos caracteres neuroanatômicos em filogenias, a morfologia externa das principais subdivisões encefálicas de Cetopsidae foi descrita, ilustrada e interpretada. Além disso, análises comparativas do desenvolvimento desse complexo foram realizadas em Helogenes marmoratus e Cetopsis gobioides com o intuito de estabelecer homologias e compreender suas modificações ontogenéticas. Os caracteres foram delimitados e testados separadamente em análises filogenéticas e posteriormente combinados com caracteres morfológicos e moleculares com diferentes métodos de análise. Para determinar o volume de cada região analisada, um modelo elipsoide foi utilizado. Amplas comparações baseadas no formato, posição relativa e volume das principais regiões encefálicas são apresentadas para a maioria das espécies representativas de todos os gêneros de Cetopsidae. As mesmas comparações também foram realizadas ao longo do desenvolvimento de Helogenes marmoratus e Cetopsis gobioides. Além disso, comparações com integrantes de outras famílias filogeneticamente relacionadas em Siluriformes forneceram um amplo contexto para um maior entendimento das principais modificações evolutivas que moldaram o encéfalo doscetopsídeos. Análises filogenéticas de todos os caracteres morfológicos foram primeiramente conduzidas em separado, e posteriormente em matrizes concatenadas sob o critério da Parcimônia. Análises Bayesianas com sequências alinhadas e concatenadas de três genes mitocondriais (COI, 16S e Cytb) foram implementadas. Por fim, análises filogenéticas com todos os dados combinados foram conduzidas sob os critérios da Parcimônia e Bayesiano. Padrões morfológicos distintos foram definidos para cada uma das duas principais subdivisões de Cetopsidae, as subfamílias Helogeninae e Cetopsinae. Poucas variações intraespecíficas na morfologia externa do encéfalo xii existem entre todas as espécies examinadas aqui. As modificações observadas ao longo do desenvolvimento do encéfalo de Helogenes marmoratus e Cetopsis gobioides foram utilizadas para a formulação correta de caracteres e seus estados. Todos os gêneros foram recuperados como grupos monofiléticos pelos caracteres neuroanatômicos.Mapeamentos filogenéticos revelaram alguns padrões morfológicos sugestivos com especializações alimentares e outras características de história de vida correlacionadas ao sistema nervoso central. Os caracteres morfológicos e moleculares se mostraram bastante congruentes nas hipóteses filogenéticas, comas incongruências restritas à tribo Cetopsini. Todas as análises recuperaram Helogeninae como grupo-irmão dos demais cetopsídeos, seguido por Cetopsidiini, Denticetopsini e Cetopsini como grupos-irmãos sucessivos.Os resultados obtidos no presente estudo suportam a ideia de que análises amplas e concatenadas de dados morfológicos e moleculares resultam em hipóteses de relacionamentos robustas e bem suportadas. Os caracteres neuroanatômicos são altamente informativos para inferências filogenéticas, que podem ser exploradospara uma maior compreensão da evolução de Otophysi. / The Neotropical South American catfish Cetopsidae is a family of Siluriformes that includes five genera and 43valid species distributed over a large portion of northern and central regions of South America, on both sides of the Andean cordilleras. The monophyly of the family is supported by several previous studies, based on both morphological and molecular characters. Despite the scarcity of evolutionary studies on the nervous system of neotropical catfishes, that complex shows great variation potentially informative for phylogenetic inference. In order to test the significance of neurological traits in a phylogenetic framework, the gross morphology of brain subdivisions in the catfish family Cetopsidae is described, illustrated and interpreted. In addition, comparative analyzes of the development of this complex were carried out in Helogenes marmoratus and Cetopsis gobioidesin order to establish homologies and ontogenetic transformations. Characters were delimited and tested separately in phylogenetic analyzes and later combined with other morphological and molecular characters with different methods of analysis. The volume of major brain subdivision was calculated by an ellipsoid model. A comprehensive comparison based on shape, relative position, and volume of the main brain subdivisions is presented for representative species of all genera and most available species in the family. The same comparisons were also made throughout the development of Helogenes marmoratus and Cetopsis gobioides. Comparisons with other phylogenetically related siluriform families provide a broader context for the understanding of the main evolutionary transformations which shaped the cetopsid brain. Phylogenetic analyzes of all morphological characters were first conducted separately, and later in matrices concatenated under the Parsimony criterion. Bayesian analyzes of three aligned and concatenated mitochondrial gene sequences (COI, 16S and Cytb) were implemented. Analyzes of all the data combined were conducted under both Parsimony and Bayesian criteria. Profoundly distinct morphological patterns are identified for each of the two main cetopsid subdivisions, subfamilies Helogeninae and Cetopsinae. Little intraspecific variation on major subdivisions of the brain exists in species examined herein. The modifications observed throughout the development of the brain inHelogenes marmoratus and Cetopsis gobioides were used for the correct delimitation xiv of characters and their states. The monophyly of all genera is supported by putative neuroanatomic characters. Phylogenetic mapping reveals recurrent morphological patterns suggestive of an association with specific feeding specializations and other life-history traits. Morphological and molecular characters were highly congruent in phylogenetic hypotheses, with inconsistencies restricted to the tribe Cetopsini. All analyzes recovered Helogeninae as thesister group toall remaining cetopsids, followed by Cetopsidiini, Denticetopsini and Cetopsini as successive sister groups. Results of the present study support the idea that large and concatenated analyzes of morphological and molecular characters result in robust well-supported hypotheses of relationships. Neuroanatomical characters are highly informative for phylogenetic inferenceand area promising field to be explored in understanding the evolution of Otophysi.

This thesis concerns the phylogenetic relationships and the evolution of the gall-inducing wasps belonging to the family Cynipidae. Several previous studies have used morphological data to reconstruct the evolution of the family. DNA sequences from several mitochondrial and nuclear genes where obtained and the first molecular, and combined molecular and morphological, analyses of higher-level relationships in the Cynipidae is presented. A Bayesian approach to data analysis is adopted, and models allowing combined analysis of heterogeneous data, such as multiple DNA data sets and morphology, are developed. The performance of these models is evaluated using methods that allow the estimation of posterior model probabilities, thus allowing selection of most probable models for the use in phylogenetics. The use of Bayesian model averaging in phylogenetics, as opposed to model selection, is also discussed. It is shown that Bayesian MCMC analysis deals efficiently with complex models and that morphology can influence combined-data analyses, despite being outnumbered by DNA data. This emphasizes the utility and potential importance of using morphological data in statistical analyses of phylogeny. The DNA-based and combined-data analyses of cynipid relationships differ from previous studies in two important respects. First, it was previously believed that there was a monophyletic clade of woody rosid gallers but the new results place the non-oak gallers in this assemblage (tribes Pediaspidini, Diplolepidini, and Eschatocerini) outside the rest of the Cynipidae. Second, earlier studies have lent strong support to the monophyly of the inquilines (tribe Synergini), gall wasps that develop inside the galls of other species. The new analyses suggest that the inquilines either originated several times independently, or that some inquilines secondarily regained the ability to induce galls. Possible reasons for the incongruence between morphological and DNA data is discussed in terms of heterogeneity in evolutionary rates among lineages, and convergent evolution of morphological characters.

No description available.

Este trabalho avaliou as relações de parentesco entre as abelhas corbiculadas (Apini) utilizando a evidência total disponível: dados morfométricos tradicionais, dados de morfometria geométrica, dados morfológicos, dados comportamentais e dados moleculares. Fontes que historicamente se mostraram incongruentes. Os problemas metodológicos que cada fonte de caracteres oferece foram investigados e corrigidos na análise filogenética de evidencia total. Todos os dados foram analisados com métodos de parcimônia. Vinte e quatro espécies de Apini e quatro espécies dos grupos externos foram analisadas. As análises filogenéticas de onze medidas corporais tradicionais sugeriram grande interferência do tamanho corporal das espécies nos resultados. Ao corrigir esse efeito do tamanho, os dados morfométricos puderam ser utilizados como caracteres filogenéticos confiáveis. O caráter obtido a partir da morfometria geométrica foi altamente convergente na análise filogenética, apesar da relação entre a forma da asa e do tamanho do corpo das espécies aparentemente terem uma restrição filogenética. As análises dos dados moleculares sugeriram a interferência da escolha dos grupos externos nos resultados, diferentes hipóteses filogenéticas surgiram quando se incluiram duas especies mais distantes de Apini nos grupos externos. Com os grupos externos mais distantes, o suporte dos clados se mostrou constante e maior para os clados mais abrangentes. Porém, os dados moleculares se mantiveram incongruentes com os caracteres morfológicos, morfométricos tradicionais e comportamentais analisados. Em contraste, os dados morfológicos e comportamentais não foram afetados pela escolha dos grupos externos, Euglossina se manteve como um grupo parafiletico segundo esses caracteres. Finalmente, a hipótese filogenética proposta nesse trabalho para o grupo das abelhas corbiculadas apoia a monofilia da tribo Apini, assim como das subtribos Euglossina, Apina, Bombina e Meliponina. A hipótese (Euglossina + (Bombina + (Apina + Meliponina))) é revalidada. Em consequência, a origem única da eussocialidade dentro de Apini é sustentada. / This work evaluated the relationship between corbiculate Apidae using the total evidence available: traditional morphometric data, geometric morphometric data, morphological data, behavioral data and molecular data. These characters historically were incongruent. Methodological problems of each source of character were investigated and corrected in the phylogenetic analysis of the total evidence. The methodological problems were searched for each source of characters. All data are analyzed with parsimony methods. Twenty- four species of Apini and four outgroup species were analyzed. Phylogenetic analysis of eleven traditional body measurements suggested significant interference with body size of the species in the results, to correct this size effect morphometric data can be used as reliable phylogenetic characters. The character obtained from geometric morphometric was highly convergent in the phylogenetic analysis, despite the apparent phylogenetic constraint observed on relationship between the wing shape and body size of the species. Analyses of molecular data suggested the interference of the choice of outgroup in the results, different phylogenetic hypotheses emerged when include two species more distant of Apini in the outgroup. With the most distant outgroup, the support of the clades showed constant and higher for most comprehensive clades. However, the molecular data remained incongruent with traditional morphological and behavioral, morphometric characters analyzed. In contrast, morphological and behavioral data were not affected by the choice of outgroup, Euglossina remained as a paraphyletic group according to these characters. Finally, the phylogenetic hypothesis proposed for the corbiculate Apidae supports the monophyly of the tribe Apini, Euglossina Apina, Bombina and Meliponina. The hypothesis (Euglossina + (Bombina + (Apina + Meliponina))) is revalidated. Consequently, a single origin of eussocialidade within Apini is sustained.

Three new species of cichlid fishes of the genus Geophagus, part of the Neotropical subfamily Geophaginae, are described from the Orinoco and Casiquiare drainages in Venezuela. Phylogenetic relationships among 16 genera and 30 species of Geophaginae are investigated using 136 morphological characters combined with DNA sequences coding for the mitochondrial gene NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 (ND4) and the nuclear Recombination Activating Gene 2 (RAG2). Data from previous studies are integrated with the new dataset by incorporating published DNA sequences from the mitochondrial genes cytochrome b and 16S and the microsatellite flanking regions Tmo-M27 and Tmo-4C4. Total-evidence analysis revealed that Geophaginae is monophyletic and includes eighteen genera grouped into two major clades. In the first clade, the tribe Acarichthyini (genera Acarichthys and Guianacara) is sister-group to a clade in which Gymnogeophagus, 'Geophagus' steindachneri, and Geophagus sensu stricto are sister to 'Geophagus' brasiliensis and Mikrogeophagus; all these are in turn sister-group to Biotodoma, Dicrossus and Crenicara. In the second clade, Satanoperca, Apistogramma (including Apistogrammoides), and Taeniacara are sister to Crenicichla and Biotoecus. Monophyly and significantly short branches at the base of the phylogeny indicate that genera within Geophaginae differentiated rapidly within a relatively short period. High morphological, ecological, and behavioral diversity within the subfamily suggest that geophagine divergence may be the result of adaptive radiation.

Three new species of cichlid fishes of the genus Geophagus, part of the Neotropical subfamily Geophaginae, are described from the Orinoco and Casiquiare drainages in Venezuela. Phylogenetic relationships among 16 genera and 30 species of Geophaginae are investigated using 136 morphological characters combined with DNA sequences coding for the mitochondrial gene NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 (ND4) and the nuclear Recombination Activating Gene 2 (RAG2). Data from previous studies are integrated with the new dataset by incorporating published DNA sequences from the mitochondrial genes cytochrome b and 16S and the microsatellite flanking regions Tmo-M27 and Tmo-4C4. Total-evidence analysis revealed that Geophaginae is monophyletic and includes eighteen genera grouped into two major clades. In the first clade, the tribe Acarichthyini (genera Acarichthys and Guianacara) is sister-group to a clade in which Gymnogeophagus, 'Geophagus' steindachneri, and Geophagus sensu stricto are sister to 'Geophagus' brasiliensis and Mikrogeophagus; all these are in turn sister-group to Biotodoma, Dicrossus and Crenicara. In the second clade, Satanoperca, Apistogramma (including Apistogrammoides), and Taeniacara are sister to Crenicichla and Biotoecus. Monophyly and significantly short branches at the base of the phylogeny indicate that genera within Geophaginae differentiated rapidly within a relatively short period. High morphological, ecological, and behavioral diversity within the subfamily suggest that geophagine divergence may be the result of adaptive radiation.

Este trabalho avaliou as relações de parentesco entre as abelhas corbiculadas (Apini) utilizando a evidência total disponível: dados morfométricos tradicionais, dados de morfometria geométrica, dados morfológicos, dados comportamentais e dados moleculares. Fontes que historicamente se mostraram incongruentes. Os problemas metodológicos que cada fonte de caracteres oferece foram investigados e corrigidos na análise filogenética de evidencia total. Todos os dados foram analisados com métodos de parcimônia. Vinte e quatro espécies de Apini e quatro espécies dos grupos externos foram analisadas. As análises filogenéticas de onze medidas corporais tradicionais sugeriram grande interferência do tamanho corporal das espécies nos resultados. Ao corrigir esse efeito do tamanho, os dados morfométricos puderam ser utilizados como caracteres filogenéticos confiáveis. O caráter obtido a partir da morfometria geométrica foi altamente convergente na análise filogenética, apesar da relação entre a forma da asa e do tamanho do corpo das espécies aparentemente terem uma restrição filogenética. As análises dos dados moleculares sugeriram a interferência da escolha dos grupos externos nos resultados, diferentes hipóteses filogenéticas surgiram quando se incluiram duas especies mais distantes de Apini nos grupos externos. Com os grupos externos mais distantes, o suporte dos clados se mostrou constante e maior para os clados mais abrangentes. Porém, os dados moleculares se mantiveram incongruentes com os caracteres morfológicos, morfométricos tradicionais e comportamentais analisados. Em contraste, os dados morfológicos e comportamentais não foram afetados pela escolha dos grupos externos, Euglossina se manteve como um grupo parafiletico segundo esses caracteres. Finalmente, a hipótese filogenética proposta nesse trabalho para o grupo das abelhas corbiculadas apoia a monofilia da tribo Apini, assim como das subtribos Euglossina, Apina, Bombina e Meliponina. A hipótese (Euglossina + (Bombina + (Apina + Meliponina))) é revalidada. Em consequência, a origem única da eussocialidade dentro de Apini é sustentada. / This work evaluated the relationship between corbiculate Apidae using the total evidence available: traditional morphometric data, geometric morphometric data, morphological data, behavioral data and molecular data. These characters historically were incongruent. Methodological problems of each source of character were investigated and corrected in the phylogenetic analysis of the total evidence. The methodological problems were searched for each source of characters. All data are analyzed with parsimony methods. Twenty- four species of Apini and four outgroup species were analyzed. Phylogenetic analysis of eleven traditional body measurements suggested significant interference with body size of the species in the results, to correct this size effect morphometric data can be used as reliable phylogenetic characters. The character obtained from geometric morphometric was highly convergent in the phylogenetic analysis, despite the apparent phylogenetic constraint observed on relationship between the wing shape and body size of the species. Analyses of molecular data suggested the interference of the choice of outgroup in the results, different phylogenetic hypotheses emerged when include two species more distant of Apini in the outgroup. With the most distant outgroup, the support of the clades showed constant and higher for most comprehensive clades. However, the molecular data remained incongruent with traditional morphological and behavioral, morphometric characters analyzed. In contrast, morphological and behavioral data were not affected by the choice of outgroup, Euglossina remained as a paraphyletic group according to these characters. Finally, the phylogenetic hypothesis proposed for the corbiculate Apidae supports the monophyly of the tribe Apini, Euglossina Apina, Bombina and Meliponina. The hypothesis (Euglossina + (Bombina + (Apina + Meliponina))) is revalidated. Consequently, a single origin of eussocialidade within Apini is sustained.