Several studies and local accounts have documented elevated levels of air pollution and toxics on or near US public schools. The low cost of brownfield lands and lands near major sources of air pollution have made siting schools on these areas enticing. Histories of using toxic chemicals in building materials explain their presence in school environments. The impacts to academic achievement associated with air pollution and exposure to lead as well as the health implications of regular, high exposure to air pollution and toxic chemicals necessitate policy changes. In this paper, the extent of these health and achievement impacts will be analyzed along with the current work being done by government and nongovernmental organizations to mitigate pollution in public schools. This study will also offer policy recommendations to address these issues and advance environmental equity in public schools.

Petroleum refineries emit a variety of airborne substances which may be harmful to human health. HEIDI II (Health Effects Indicators Decision Index II) is a computer-based decision analysis tool which assesses airborne emissions from Canada's oil refineries for reduction, based on ordinal ranking of estimated health impacts. The model was designed by a project team within NERAM (Network for Environmental Risk Assessment and Management) and assembled with significant stakeholder consultation. HEIDI II is publicly available as a deterministic Excel-based tool which ranks 31 air pollutants based on predicted disease incidence or estimated DALYS (disability adjusted life years). The model includes calculations to account for average annual emissions, ambient concentrations, stack height, meteorology/dispersion, photodegradation, and the population distribution around each refinery. Different formulations of continuous dose-response functions were applied to nonthreshold-acting air toxics, threshold-acting air toxics, and nonthreshold-acting CACs (criteria air contaminants). An updated probabilistic version of HEIDI II was developed using Matlab code to account for parameter uncertainty and identify key leverage variables. Sensitivity analyses indicate that parameter uncertainty in the model variables for annual emissions and for concentration-response/toxicological slopes have the greatest leverage on predicted health impacts. Scenario analyses suggest that the geographic distribution of population density around a refinery site is an important predictor of total health impact. Several ranking metrics (predicted case incidence, simple DALY, and complex DALY) and ordinal ranking approaches (deterministic model, average from Monte Carlo simulation, test of stochastic dominance) were used to identify priority substances for reduction; the results were similar in each case. The predicted impacts of primary and secondary particulate matter (PM) consistently outweighed those of the air toxics. Nickel, PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene), sulphuric acid, and vanadium were consistently identified as priority air toxics at refineries where they were reported emissions. For many substances, the difference in rank order is indeterminate when parametric uncertainty and variability are considered.

Microrganismos oriundos de ecossistemas restritivos como o continente Antártico têm despertado grande interesse científico, visto que pesquisas podem resultar em produtos de grande interesse comercial. Visando o melhor aproveitamento da fração hemicelulósica de biomassas vegetais para obtenção de bioprodutos, junto ao potencial biotecnológico das leveduras da Antártica, a presente pesquisa avaliou a tolerância destas ao hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana em função de sua concentração, bem como em meio semi-definido. A avaliação das leveduras Cryptococcus laurentii (L62), Cryptococcus adeliensis (L95), Candida davisiana (L101 e 107) e Guehomyces pullulans (L109) foi feita a partir do consumo de xilose, glicose, arabinose, ácido acético, compostos fenólicos totais, produção de xilitol, células e pigmentos. Os cultivos foram realizados em Erlenmeyer de 125 mL, com 50 mL de meio a 200 RPM, a 30 °C por 48h. Considerando que a L109 demonstrou melhor desempenho quanto ao consumo de xilose e produção de xilitol do que as demais leveduras, a mesma foi utilizada para avaliar a influência da suplementação nutricional do hidrolisado sobre estes parâmetros utilizando delineamento composto central rotacional (DCCR). Todas as leveduras consumiram totalmente a glicose independente da concentração do hidrolisado, enquanto o consumo de xilose, arabinose, ácido acético e fenóis totais variaram de acordo com a concentração do hidrolisado e a levedura empregada, da mesma forma para produção de xilitol, células e pigmento. O planejamento realizado (DCCR) demonstrou que o consumo de xilose é favorecido na máxima concentração do extrato de farelo de arroz, e níveis intermediários de (NH4)2SO4, enquanto que a concentração de CaCl2 não foi significativa. Para o fator Yp/s de xilitol, baixos níveis de extrato de farelo de arroz e CaCl2 aumentaram este fator enquanto que o (NH4)2SO4 favoreceu em níveis intermediários. Conclui-se com estes resultados que as leveduras da Antártica são capazes de tolerar o hidrolisado, sendo capazes também de consumir os compostos tóxicos, ácido acético e fenólicos totais. / Microorganisms from restrictive ecosystems such as Antarctica have aroused great scientific interest, since research studies may result in high value-added products. Given the need for better utilization of the hemicellulose fraction of biomass to obtain bioproducts, coupled with great biotechnological potential of the Antarctic yeast. This research evaluated the tolerance of these yeasts related to the hemicellulosic hydrolyzate from sugarcane bagasse at different concentrations, as well as in a semi-defined medium. Performance evaluation of the yeasts was based on consumption of xylose, glucose, arabinose, acetic acid, phenolics compounds, production of xylitol, cells and pigments. The following yeasts were employed: Cryptococcus laurentii (L62), Cryptococcus adeliensis (L95), Candida davisiana (L101 and 107) and Guehomyces pullulans (L109). Cultures were cultivated in 125 mL Erlenmeyer flasks with a 50 mL medium at 200 RPM and 30 °C for 48h. Since the L109 showed a better performance in relation to the xylose consumption and xylitol production than the other yeasts when cultivated in hemicellulosic hydrolyzate diluted with 25% distilled water, the same was used to evaluate the influence of nutritional supplementation of the hemicelulosic hydrolyzate utilizing central composite rotational design (CCRD). All yeasts completely consumed glucose regardless of the hemicelulosic hydrolyzate concentration; while the consumption of xylose, arabinose, acetic acid and phenolics varied according to the concentration of hydrolyzate and yeast employed, the same was observed with xylitol production, cells and pigment. The design (CCRD), demonstrated that the xylose consumption was favored by maximum the concentration of the rice bran extract, and intermediate levels of (NH4)2SO4, whereas the concentration of CaCl2 was not significant. For the conversion into xylitol, low levels of rice bran extract and CaCl2 increased YP/S, while (NH4)2SO4 favored at intermediate levels. It was concluded that the Antarctic yeast tolerate the hydrolyzed, being also able to consume toxic compounds such as acetic acid and phenolic compounds.

Microrganismos oriundos de ecossistemas restritivos como o continente Antártico têm despertado grande interesse científico, visto que pesquisas podem resultar em produtos de grande interesse comercial. Visando o melhor aproveitamento da fração hemicelulósica de biomassas vegetais para obtenção de bioprodutos, junto ao potencial biotecnológico das leveduras da Antártica, a presente pesquisa avaliou a tolerância destas ao hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana em função de sua concentração, bem como em meio semi-definido. A avaliação das leveduras Cryptococcus laurentii (L62), Cryptococcus adeliensis (L95), Candida davisiana (L101 e 107) e Guehomyces pullulans (L109) foi feita a partir do consumo de xilose, glicose, arabinose, ácido acético, compostos fenólicos totais, produção de xilitol, células e pigmentos. Os cultivos foram realizados em Erlenmeyer de 125 mL, com 50 mL de meio a 200 RPM, a 30 °C por 48h. Considerando que a L109 demonstrou melhor desempenho quanto ao consumo de xilose e produção de xilitol do que as demais leveduras, a mesma foi utilizada para avaliar a influência da suplementação nutricional do hidrolisado sobre estes parâmetros utilizando delineamento composto central rotacional (DCCR). Todas as leveduras consumiram totalmente a glicose independente da concentração do hidrolisado, enquanto o consumo de xilose, arabinose, ácido acético e fenóis totais variaram de acordo com a concentração do hidrolisado e a levedura empregada, da mesma forma para produção de xilitol, células e pigmento. O planejamento realizado (DCCR) demonstrou que o consumo de xilose é favorecido na máxima concentração do extrato de farelo de arroz, e níveis intermediários de (NH4)2SO4, enquanto que a concentração de CaCl2 não foi significativa. Para o fator Yp/s de xilitol, baixos níveis de extrato de farelo de arroz e CaCl2 aumentaram este fator enquanto que o (NH4)2SO4 favoreceu em níveis intermediários. Conclui-se com estes resultados que as leveduras da Antártica são capazes de tolerar o hidrolisado, sendo capazes também de consumir os compostos tóxicos, ácido acético e fenólicos totais. / Microorganisms from restrictive ecosystems such as Antarctica have aroused great scientific interest, since research studies may result in high value-added products. Given the need for better utilization of the hemicellulose fraction of biomass to obtain bioproducts, coupled with great biotechnological potential of the Antarctic yeast. This research evaluated the tolerance of these yeasts related to the hemicellulosic hydrolyzate from sugarcane bagasse at different concentrations, as well as in a semi-defined medium. Performance evaluation of the yeasts was based on consumption of xylose, glucose, arabinose, acetic acid, phenolics compounds, production of xylitol, cells and pigments. The following yeasts were employed: Cryptococcus laurentii (L62), Cryptococcus adeliensis (L95), Candida davisiana (L101 and 107) and Guehomyces pullulans (L109). Cultures were cultivated in 125 mL Erlenmeyer flasks with a 50 mL medium at 200 RPM and 30 °C for 48h. Since the L109 showed a better performance in relation to the xylose consumption and xylitol production than the other yeasts when cultivated in hemicellulosic hydrolyzate diluted with 25% distilled water, the same was used to evaluate the influence of nutritional supplementation of the hemicelulosic hydrolyzate utilizing central composite rotational design (CCRD). All yeasts completely consumed glucose regardless of the hemicelulosic hydrolyzate concentration; while the consumption of xylose, arabinose, acetic acid and phenolics varied according to the concentration of hydrolyzate and yeast employed, the same was observed with xylitol production, cells and pigment. The design (CCRD), demonstrated that the xylose consumption was favored by maximum the concentration of the rice bran extract, and intermediate levels of (NH4)2SO4, whereas the concentration of CaCl2 was not significant. For the conversion into xylitol, low levels of rice bran extract and CaCl2 increased YP/S, while (NH4)2SO4 favored at intermediate levels. It was concluded that the Antarctic yeast tolerate the hydrolyzed, being also able to consume toxic compounds such as acetic acid and phenolic compounds.

Source: Masters Abstracts International, Volume: 46-01, page: 0340. Adviser: Arch I. Carson. Includes bibliographical references.

Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are listed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) as urban air toxics. Health effects due to significant exposure to these air toxics include increased incidence of nasopharyngeal cancer, myeloid leukemia, and exacerbation of asthma. Determining the spatial variation of air toxics, such as acetaldehyde and formaldehyde, is important for improving health risk assessment and evaluating the effectiveness of source control and reduction programs. Here, a pilot study was designed and performed to investigate small-scale spatial variability in concentrations of aldehydes using passive samplers. A literature review was first completed to select and evaluate current passive sampling and analysis methods. Radiello Aldehyde Samplers and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were selected for sampling and analysis, respectively. An HPLC instrument was then set-up for separation with an Allure AK (aldehyde-ketone) column and for detection of aldehyde-derivatives via ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrometer at 365 nm. Samplers were deployed in an (approximately) 0.7 km resolution grid pattern for one week in January 2010. Collected samples and blanks were eluted with acetonitrile and analysis was performed with the HPLC. Aldehyde samples were quantified using calibration standards. Mean aldehyde concentrations were 3.1 and 1.2 =/ mg/m³ for formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, respectively, and mean acetaldehyde/formaldehyde concentration ratios were 0.4. The concentration ratios showed very little variation between sites, and correlation of aldehyde concentrations by site was high (r=0.7). Therefore, it is likely that both aldehydes have similar sources. Spatial variation of aldehyde concentrations was small within the sampling area, as displayed by low coefficients of variation (13 and 23% for formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, respectively) and small concentration differences between sites (average of both aldehydes less than 0.5 mg/m³). Thus, one sampler may be representative of this sampling area and possibly other areas of the same spatial scale. Methods established during this pilot study will be used in a larger field campaign to characterize the spatial distribution of concentrations throughout the county, for analysis of environmental equity and health impacts.

This chapter defines and describes hazardous wastes and their adverse health effects. Historical evolution of the management and public understanding of waste issues is traced. Other parts of the chapter describe hazardous waste management, including disposal landfills, land farming, incineration, and toxics use reduction. Various regulatory measures are described as well as nonregulatory measures for prevention and control of adverse health effects from hazardous wastes. Approaches to evaluating human health effects at hazardous waste sites are described, emphasizing special challenges and opportunities in environmental epidemiology. Social aspects of community involvement are noted. Steps of the Superfund clean-up process are delineated. Governmental contingency plans for coordination in emergency response situations are reviewed. In addition, a section describes pollution prevention and toxics use reduction.

In this dissertation, I analyze online environmental anti-toxics activism. Environmental activist groups have created a presence on the World Wide Web to help empower people to become aware of and struggle against pollution. The sites that I explore (http://www.epa.gov/tri/, http://www.epa.gov/enviro/wme/, http://www.rtknet.org/, and http://www.scorecard.org/) serve as devices of this empowerment and by extension recruit people to the political goals of anti-toxics activism. In my analysis, I focus on a series of questions germane to this context. How can/does this movement go online and utilize that presence to sway others to their cause and ideology? How then is that cause represented digitally, in the online medium? What are the reciprocal impacts of that representation on the movement itself? Most importantly, what form of activist identity is being promoted through the mediation of the online interface? That is, how are the identity of the self as activist and the related understanding of space and place altered through their translation into a digital environment? What are the parameters and limitations of digitally mediated, informed empowerment? I undertake to critique empowerment as found through the digital translation of environmental anti-toxics activism into the virtual space of the Web. I show that particular uses of this Internet application invent (reinvent/reinforce) versions of environmental anti-toxics activism, digitized versions which must be understood in terms of their wider assumptions and implications. I break the study into three main parts. The first part lays theoretical groundwork for studying Web-based entities. The second part deals with more particular foundational elements for digital environmental anti-toxics activism, especially in terms of information. In the final section, I analyze and critique the forms of digital identity and empowerment that the websites create. I conclude that digital empowerment, defined primarily through access to expert information, actually represents an impoverished version of empowerment which may do little to aid real-world toxic struggles. / Ph. D.

According to the World Health Organization, urban air pollution is a high public health priority due its linkage to cardio-pulmonary disease and association with increased mortality and morbidity (1, 2). Additionally, air pollution impacts climate change, visibility, and ecosystem health. The development of effective strategies for improving air quality requires accurate estimates of air pollutant emissions. In response to the need for new approaches to measuring emissions, we have designed a mobile Flux Lab for the Atmospheric Measurement of Emissions (FLAME) that applies a proven, science-based method known as eddy covariance for the direct quantification of anthropogenic emissions to the atmosphere. The mobile flux lab is a tool with novel, multifaceted abilities to assess air quality and improve the fidelity of emission inventories. Measurements of air pollutant concentrations in multiple locations at the neighborhood scale can provide much greater spatial resolution for population exposure assessments. The lab's mobility allows it to target specific sources, and plumes from these can be analyzed to determine emission factors. Through eddy covariance, the lab provides the new ability to directly measure emissions of a suite of air pollutants. We have deployed the FLAME to three different settings: a rural Appalachian town where coal transport is the dominant industry; schools in the medium-sized city of Roanoke, Virginia; and the large urban areas around Norfolk, Virginia, to measure neighborhood-scale emissions of air pollution. These areas routinely experience high ozone and particulate matter concentrations and include a diverse array of residential neighborhoods and industries. The FLAME is able to capture emissions from all ground-based sources, such as motor vehicles, rail and barge traffic, refuse fires and refueling stations, for which no direct measurement method has been available previously. Experiments focus on carbon dioxide (CO₂), the principal greenhouse gas responsible for climate change; nitrogen oxides (NOx), a key ingredient in ground-level ozone and acid rain; volatile organic compounds (VOCs), a second key ingredient in ozone and many of which are air toxics; and fine particulate matter (PM2.5), a cause of mortality, decreased visibility, and climate change. This research provides some of the first measurements of neighborhood-scale anthropogenic emissions of CO₂, NOx, VOCs and PM2.5 and as a result, the first opportunity to validate official emission inventories directly. The results indicate that a mobile eddy covariance system can be used successfully to measure fluxes of multiple pollutants in a variety of urban settings. With certain pollutants in certain locations, flux measurements confirmed inventories, but in others, they disagreed by factors of up to five, suggesting that parts of the inventory may be severely over- or underestimated. Over the scale of a few kilometers within a city, emissions were highly heterogeneous in both space and time. FLAME-based measurements also confirmed published emission factors from coal barges and showed that idling vehicles are the dominant source of emissions of air toxics around seven schools in southwest Virginia. Measurements from this study corroborate existing emission inventories of CO₂ and NOx and suggest that inventories of PM2.5 may be overestimated. Despite the tremendous spatial and temporal variability in emissions found in dense urban areas, CO₂ fluxes on average are very similar across the areas in this study and other urban areas in the developed world. Nevertheless, the high level of variability in spatial and temporal patterns of emissions presents a challenge to air quality modelers. The finding that emissions from idling vehicles at schools are likely responsible for creating hot spots of air toxics adds to the urgency of implementing no-idling and other rules to reduce the exposure of children to such pollutants. Ultimately, the results of this study can be used in combination with knowledge from existing emission inventories to improve the science and policies surrounding air pollution. / Ph. D.

A contaminação dos solos por elementos potencialmente tóxicos (EPTs) provoca alterações na estrutura e no funcionamento dos ecossistemas, além de oferecer riscos à saúde pública. Os EPTs estão presentes naturalmente no ambiente, sendo constituintes de rochas e sedimentos. Entretanto, atividades antropogênicas como emissões industriais, uso de efluentes urbanos, dejetos de animais, biossólidos, fertilizantes e defensivos agrícolas podem contribuir para aumento da concentração dos EPTs. O solo é um dos principais meios de exposição dos EPTs aos seres humanos. Logo, é importante quantificar os teores dos EPTs nos solos e sua distribuição na microbacia para poder avaliar o risco a saúde humana. Os efeitos dos elementos tóxicos que chegam ao solo sobre a diversidade e funcionalidade da biota podem ser avaliados por meio de testes ecotoxicológicos. Alguns organismos são bons indicadores ambientais por participarem de processos biológicos importantes do solo. Os principais organismos utilizados são os colêmbolos, artrópodes terrestres com alta diversidade e abundância, sendo encontrado em todos os biomas. Nesse estudo, quantificaram-se os teores de Arsênio (As), Cádmio (Cd), Cobalto (Co), Cobre (Cu), Cromo (Cr), Chumbo (Pb), Níquel (Ni) e Zinco (Zn) em amostras de 15 solos da microbacia do Rio Guamium, localizada em Piracicaba, São Paulo. Foi realizado experimento em casa de vegetação com alface (Lactuca sativa L.), pepino (Cucumis sativus L.), beterraba (Beta vulgaris L.) e rúcula (Eruca sativus Mill.) para avaliar o risco a saúde humana. Foi avaliado também o efeito da aplicação de doses de As na reprodução dos colêmbolos. Para tanto, foram coletadas amostras de solos nas profundidades 0 - 0,1; 0,1 - 0,2; 0,2 - 0,3; 0,3 - 0,4; 0,4 - 0,6; 0,6 - 0,9 e 0,9 - 1,2 m. Foi realizada a extração dos EPTs pelo método EPA 3051a (0,5 g de solo + 9 ml HNO3 + 3 ml HCl com digestão assistida por forno microondas). Os EPTs que apresentaram as maiores concentrações foram o As (3 pontos) e Cu (1 ponto), sendo as concentrações superiores ou iguais ao valor de prevenção estabelecido pelo órgão ambiental paulista (Cetesb). O As apresentou elevado risco carcinogênico, enquanto o Cu apresentou risco à saúde humana apenas quando 100 % dos vegetais consumidos eram provenientes da área com elevado teor de Cu, sendo este o cenário mais restritivo. Houve diferença na disponibilidade de As entre o solo natural e o solo artificial tropical (SAT), composto por areia, caulinita e pó de fibra de coco. O SAT apresentou alta disponibilidade de As o que reduziu a taxa de reprodução dos colêmbolos. No SAT a LOEC (Lowest Observed Effect Concentration) foi 0,25 mg kg-1 e a NOEC (No Observed Effect Concentration) < 0,25 mg kg-1. No solo natural não foi possível determinar a NOEC, enquanto a LOEC foi 8,41 mg kg-1. / Soil contamination by potential toxics elements (PTEs) can change the ecosystem structure, its function and can cause risk to human health. PTEs occur naturally in the environment; however human activities such as industrial emissions, urban sewage, animal waste, biosolids, fertilizers and pesticides can increase their concentration. Soil is one of the main pathways to human exposure, so it is important to evaluate the contents of PTEs in soils and their distribution in the watershed in order to assess the human health risk. The effects of PTEs that reach the soil on the diversity and functionality of microorganisms can be evaluated by ecotoxicological tests. Organisms that take part of the biological process can be used as environment quality indicators. One of them is the springtails (Collembola) that are wide spread and have high diversity, being found in all ecosystems. In this study, we evaluated the Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni) and Zinc (Zn) contents in 15 soil from Guamium watershed, located in Piracicaba, state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. To assess the human health risk lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) and rocket (Eruca sativus Mill.) were cultivated under greenhouse conditions. The effect of As rates on collembola reproduction was also evaluated. Soil samples were collected in the following depths: 0 - 0.1; 0.1 - 0.2; 0.2 - 0.3; 0.3 - 0.4; 0.4 - 0.6; 0.6 - 0.9 e 0.9 - 1.2 m. Contents of PTEs were obtained after microwave extraction by EPA 3051a method (0.5 g soil + 9 mL HNO3 + 3 mL HCl). As and Cu had the highest contents, and their concentration were close or higher than prevention value established by Sao Paulo state environmental agency (Cetesb). As showed high carcinogenic risk, otherwise Cu only represented risk to human health in the most restrictive scenario, when 100% of the vegetables consumed were taken from the contaminated area. There was difference in the As availability between natural soil and artificial soil (ArtS) which was composed by sand, Kaolinite and powdered coconut fiber. As availability was high in the ArtS and it decreased the collembola reproduction. The Lowest Observed Effect Concentration (LOEC) on SAT were 0.25 mg kg-1, while and the No Observed Effect Concentration (LOEC) were less than 0.25 mg kg-1. Otherwise, the LOEC were 8.41 mg kg-1 in the natural soil, but it was not possible to define the NOEC.