<p>How does the recent wave of preferential trading arrangements affect, the incentives for further trade liberalization of member states, and the possibility of obtaining global free trade? And are there any differences in this aspect between custom unions and other forms of preferential trading arrangements? These questions are well debated and have divided international trade researchers into two camps, one in favour for preferential trading arrangements and the other side against them. I have used well acknowledged researchers in the area of international trade theory to make a literature study of the above mentioned key elements in the debate. When comparing the two sides I have focused mainly on their differences, assumptions and results. I have come to the conclusion that there is nothing to be alarmed by of the wave of regionalism that’s occurring in the world today, but caution should be applied and more research in this area is necessary before any certain conclusions can be drawn. Free trade association seems to be welfare enhancing in general, with a few exceptions. I have found that the crucial points of what affect Free Trade Agreements will have on trade liberalization seems to be whether they are open or closed, how asymmetric the world is and the size of the trading blocs. The matter concerning custom unions are more alarming and seems to harm further trade liberalization in many aspects but this area also needs more research to give more reliable answers.</p>

Can international institutions work independently from the great powers in terms of autonomy and independence? To answer the question, this thesis analyzes 197 concluded arbitration cases and the Convention of the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). But why the ICSID? Trade liberalization has long been sought by almost all the countries under multilateralism represented by the GATT and its successor, the WTO. However, due mainly to slow and laborious decision making, proceedings for dispute settlement and acquiring mandatory consent from all the member countries under the WTO, states -especially great economic powers - began to turn to Free Trade Agreements(FTAs) toavoid such problems. Most of the FTAs include Bilateral Investment Treaties and investment dispute settlement provisions. When investment disputes arise, the parties can resolve them bilaterally or they may bring their cases to an international dispute settlement institution. The ICSID is one of leading dispute settlement institutions in the field of international investments. Since the late 1990s, the cases argued at and the references to the ICSID began to increase sharply indicating that states have begun to perceive the ICSID as more important. So I analyzed the ICSID in terms of its autonomy and independence. The findings are as follows.Throughout the Articles of the ICSID Convention, the ICSID endeavors to keep its autonomy and independence. Although there are more arbitrators from developing countries than developed countries in the arbitration panel, developed country arbitrators have been selected more frequently as members of arbitration Tribunals of the ICSID. But the compositions of the Tribunals do not affect the winning rate especially fordeveloped country in the arbitrations. Although the durations of the arbitration proceedings vary in each party category, developing countries tend to show their lack of legal capacities and monetary shortage, especially needed for the due process procedures in arbitrations. As for compliance to ICSID awards, almost all the Contracting Statesfollowed the awards except for some cases, especially Argentine ones. In general, the ICSID has maintained its autonomy and independence though there also is some evidence and some cases where this argument is not supported. Asmore pending cases turn to concluded ones, there will be more cases available for furtherresearch on the ICSID.

How does the recent wave of preferential trading arrangements affect, the incentives for further trade liberalization of member states, and the possibility of obtaining global free trade? And are there any differences in this aspect between custom unions and other forms of preferential trading arrangements? These questions are well debated and have divided international trade researchers into two camps, one in favour for preferential trading arrangements and the other side against them. I have used well acknowledged researchers in the area of international trade theory to make a literature study of the above mentioned key elements in the debate. When comparing the two sides I have focused mainly on their differences, assumptions and results. I have come to the conclusion that there is nothing to be alarmed by of the wave of regionalism that’s occurring in the world today, but caution should be applied and more research in this area is necessary before any certain conclusions can be drawn. Free trade association seems to be welfare enhancing in general, with a few exceptions. I have found that the crucial points of what affect Free Trade Agreements will have on trade liberalization seems to be whether they are open or closed, how asymmetric the world is and the size of the trading blocs. The matter concerning custom unions are more alarming and seems to harm further trade liberalization in many aspects but this area also needs more research to give more reliable answers.

The common agricultural policy (CAP) is a much discussed policy in the European Union (EU). It allocates great sums to the European agricultural sector every year and has been accused of being trade distorting and outdated. This thesis takes a closer look at what protectionist measures the CAP has used. The policy’s effects on trade will be assessed employing the sugar industry as a reference case. Sugar is heavily protected and is one of the most distorted sectors in agriculture. The CAP effects on trade in the sugar industry for ten countries in and outside the EU from 1991 to 2011 are estimated using a gravity model. This particular type of estimation has, to the author’s knowledge, not been performed for the sugar industry before, which makes the study unique. The results of the empirical testing indicates that trade diversion occurs if one country is a member of the CAP and its trading partner is not. When both trading partners are outside the CAP cooperation, they are estimated to have a higher trade volume. This result indicates that the CAP decreases trade. Current economic theory, in particular the North-South model of trade developed by Krugman (1979), suggests that protectionism of non-competitive sectors should be abolished and funds should instead be directed to innovation and new technology. The CAP is in this sense not adapted to modern economic thought.

This study investigates the influence of bilateral free-trade agreements (FTAs) on the international expansion of developing-country multinational enterprises (MNEs). The study includes ten case studies of Thai MNEs in the food industry. The study explores the responses of these firms to three of Thailand’s bilateral FTAs (Thailand–Australia FTA, Thailand–New Zealand Closer Economic Partnership and Thailand–Japan Economic Partnership Agreement). All the case firms regard these Agreements favourably. The findings offer insight into the role of bilateral FTAs in Thai MNEs’ internationalisation. The Agreements help firms to internationalise, at the same time influencing the corporate adjustments they have to make. The firms in this study share a number of common responses, which include adjustments in product strategy and the development of new business networks. The findings also suggest differences among firms in their internal adjustments in response to FTAs. First, some firms respond much more vigorously than others. Second, in order to reap the full benefit of the FTAs and internationalise successfully, some have to develop new strengths; for example, the ability to coordinate and integrate activities more closely. The analysis of the research findings of this study suggests some modification of the inherited theoretical framework, by means of which the impact and role of government trade policy in the internationalisation of firms is assessed. The overall impact of bilateral FTAs on Thai MNEs in the food sector is positive but modest. Directly, FTAs influence the development of firms’ internal strategies, capabilities and resources. Further studies are recommended to test if FTAs impact on other types of firms, other sectors of business, and other countries in the same ways. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1383228 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, Business School, 2010

This thesis examines the regulation of regionalism by the WTO and the formation and operation of regional trade agreements by developing countries. In particular, this work focuses on regional integration in Eastern and Southern Africa. The aim of the thesis is to assess the effectiveness of the relevant legal regimes and determine ways in which they can be made more effective, both in terms of their impact on state conduct and in terms of their impact on the economic welfare of the states concerned. The thesis argues that, with regard to the WTO legal regime, the exemption from the application of Article XXIV, GATT 1994 given to developing countries by the Enabling Clause has contributed to the lack of effectiveness of the WTO regime. For developing countries, on the other hand, the Enabling Clause has deprived them of the legal discipline required to establish effective free trade areas and customs unions. This latter argument is examined through a case study of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). The thesis contends that for COMESA countries to engage in meaningful trade liberalisation, and to participate fully in the WTO, acceptance of greater legal discipline is critical. Such legal discipline can be obtained through compliance with Article XXIV.

O presente estudo tem por objetivo discutir as perspectivas para a produção, exportações, importações, preços e níveis de bem-estar (excedente do produtor e do consumidor) para o setor de carne bovina no MERCOSUL frente a alguns cenários de acordos comerciais, tais como de redução tarifária em nível multilateral bem como de acordos comerciais bilaterais entre o MERCOSUL e outras regiões. Foi utilizado um Modelo de Alocação Espacial formulado como um Problema de Complementaridade Mista (PCM), e para sua construção primeiramente é feita a estimação das funções de oferta e demanda de carne bovina para as onze regiões determinadas na dissertação, que são separadas espacialmente pelos custos de transporte. Além desses custos, existem as barreiras comerciais, aqui representadas pelas tarifas. O nível de bem-estar é maximizado nessas regiões e se obtém produção, consumo, preços, fluxos comerciais e se pode calcular os níveis de bem-estar dos produtores (EP), dos consumidores (EC) e o nível de bem-estar agregado para cada uma das onze regiões. Dessa forma, obteve-se o Cenário Atual mundial de carne bovina, sendo que a partir desse cenário base são feitas simulações de redução tarifária multilateral e de acordos comerciais entre o MERCOSUL e outras regiões para se analisar o que ocorre com as variáveis já mencionadas. A partir do Cenário Atual foram simulados quatro cenários de redução tarifária multilateral e dois cenários de acordos comerciais bilaterais. No Cenário Atual as regiões MER e OCE são exportadoras e as demais produzem para consumo interno e dentre estas algumas são importadoras (NAF, ASE, CHI, JAP e CEI). Quando se analisa o nível de bem-estar dos produtores de MER, o livre comércio é o cenário que mais traz benefícios a esses agentes. A segunda melhor opção para os produtores de carne bovina de MER seria a imposição de um teto de 15% nas tarifas de importação de todas as regiões. As outras opções seriam, ordenadas a partir daquelas que trazem maiores benefícios para as que trazem menores, o cenário de tarifas à metade, o cenário do teto de 30%, seguido do cenário de livre comércio MER-JAP e por fim o cenário de livre comércio MER-CHI. O nível de bem-estar de todos os agentes na região MER (produtores e consumidores), denominado excedente total ou ET, encontra-se na mesma direção que o nível de bem-estar dos produtores. Entretanto, o nível de bem-estar dos consumidores na região MER no cenário de livre comércio diminui em relação ao cenário atual, sendo necessárias políticas públicas compensatórias aos consumidores de MER no caso de implantação de redução tarifária. / This study aims to analyze perspectives for production, exports, imports, prices, consumer surplus and producer’s surplus for bovine meat in MERCOSUR considering some scenarios of trade agreements, such as tariff reduction in multilateral level as well as trade agreements between MERCOSUR and other regions. It is used a spatial model using a Mixed Complementarity Problem (MCP), and to formulate it is necessary to estimate demand and supply functions for eleven regions that are determined in this work and spatially separated by transportation costs. Besides this cost, there are trade barriers that are represented in this study like tariffs. Using MCP it is maximized the welfare in eleven regions and it is obtained production, consumption, prices, trade flows, and the producer’s and consumer’s welfare level can be calculated, as well as the aggregate welfare level for each one of the eleven regions. Therefore, it is obtained the world bovine meat Actual Scenario, considering that this scenario is the basis for simulations of multilateral tariffs reduction and trade agreements between MERCOSUR and other regions to know what happens concerning the variables mentioned. With the results of Actual Scenario it is simulated four scenarios considering multilateral tariffs reduction and two scenarios of bilateral trade agreements. In the Actual Scenario MER and OCE regions are exporters and the others produce for their own consumption. Among these last ones, some are importers (NAF, ASE, CHI, JAP and CEI). When it is analyzed the MER producer’s welfare level, the free trade situation brings more gains for this category. The second best option for the MER producers is the scenarios with tariffs until 15%. Other options are: scenario with half tariffs, scenario with tariffs until 30%, bilateral trade agreement MER-JAP, and the situation with less aggregate gains for MER is the bilateral trade agreement MER-CHI. The aggregate welfare level in region MER goes at the same direction that MER producer’s welfare level. However, the MER consumer’s welfare level goes to the opposite direction, considering that the major losses for this group are in free trade scenario. If any level of free trade is implemented, the suggestion is compensatory public policy for the agents that are prejudiced.

Made available in DSpace on 2009-11-18T19:00:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 rosanaroal.pdf: 564383 bytes, checksum: 3fde0a8704d147b75e045309c621d576 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / The main subject of this study is the consensus analysis of negotiations of Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs). Generally speaking, delays and interruptions caused by controversies and impasses end up becoming strong efficiency problems which jeopardize the consensus building during any negotiation. As a justification, the target of this study is to identify processes to help obtain, efficiently, agreements in the RTAs negotiations. Its final objective was to search for theoretical tools and techniques to be applied in situations of stoppage in a sense of eliminating the difficulties or making them at least easier to deal with. Secondarily other theoretical points of view were considered with the intention of understanding how strategies and theoretical tools can contribute in each/or different scenario of the negotiation. Through the different ways of looking at it for the conduction of the negotiations, for evaluating the dimensions of the negotiations and in order to build up the consensus, the researcher was able to understand the perception and the interpretation of the subject in view. At last the conclusion was that the applicability of the chosen framework is positive in helping solve problems and controversies as well as building up the consensus during the negotiations. / Esse trabalho aborda como tema principal o estudo da construção de consenso em negociações de Acordos Regionais de Comércio (ARCs). Nas negociações em geral, atrasos e paralisações, ocasionados por controvérsias e impasses, podem constituir um forte problema de eficiência na construção de consenso. Como justificativa, diante da problemática, esse trabalho visa identificar processos que auxiliem a obter, eficientemente, acordos nas negociações. Seu objetivo final foi a busca por instrumentos teóricos e técnicas que pudessem ser aplicados em situações de paralisações, no sentido de eliminá-las ou amenizá-las. Como objetivo secundário, foram estudadas outras abordagens teóricas no intuito de entender, sob diversas óticas, como estratégias e instrumentos teóricos contribuem mais eficientemente em certas situações e/ou negociações. Através das diferentes abordagens escolhidas para avaliação das dimensões presentes nas negociações e para construção de consenso, ficou possível ao pesquisador a percepção e interpretação do fenômeno estudado. Ao final, concluiu-se positivamente sobre a aplicabilidade do arcabouço teórico escolhido, no auxílio na solução problemas de controvérsias e impasses, bem como, na construção de consenso nas negociações.

Cette thèse comporte quatre chapitres qui examinent plusieurs aspects de la politique économique- dans son rapport à la mondialisation et à l'intégration économique. Le premier chapitre considère la question du lien entre spécialisation commerciale et croissance. Les résultats identifient un lien empirique robuste entre niveau initial de sophistication et croissance du PIB réel par tête dans le cas de la Chine. Le second chapitre étudie le lien entre la structure du système bancaire chinois et la structure des exportations L'étude empirique révèle la présence de contraintes de crédit pesant sur les firmes privées domestiques) qui exportent relativement moins dans les secteurs les plus dépendants de financements extérieurs. Le troisième chapitre étudie l'impact de l'immigration sur les marchés du travail dans un cadre de marchés régionaux fragmentés. Il montre que dans ce cadre, la mobilité spatiale des travailleurs immigrés contribue à augmenter l'efficacité des marchés du travail, mais que la politique d'immigration devient plus restrictive, sous certaines conditions. Le quatrième chapitre étudie les déterminants des accords préférentiels de libre-échange entre pays. Il montre que les gains en termes d'accès au marché sont un déterminant plus fort de la probabilité de signer un accord que ceux des consommateurs. / This thesis consists of four chapters that examine various aspects of economic policy in its relation to globalization and economic integration. The first chapter considers the question of the link between trade specialization and growth. The results identify a robust empirical ink between initial level of sophistication at province level and real GOP per capita growth in the case of China. The second chapter examines the relationship between the structure of the Chinese banking system and the structure of exports. The empirical study reveals the presence of credit constraints weighing on domestic private firms, which export relatively less in sectors more dependent on external financing. The third chapter examines the impact of immigration on labor markets in a setting with fragmented regional markets. It shows that in this framework, the spatial mobility of migrant workers contributes to increase the efficiency of labor markets, but immigration policy becomes more restrictive under certain conditions. The fourth chapter examines the determinants of preferential free trade agreements. It shows that the gains in market access are a stronger determinant of a country's probability of signing an agreement than the gains accruing to consumers in the form of lower prices

O presente estudo tem por objetivo discutir as perspectivas para a produção, exportações, importações, preços e níveis de bem-estar (excedente do produtor e do consumidor) para o setor de carne bovina no MERCOSUL frente a alguns cenários de acordos comerciais, tais como de redução tarifária em nível multilateral bem como de acordos comerciais bilaterais entre o MERCOSUL e outras regiões. Foi utilizado um Modelo de Alocação Espacial formulado como um Problema de Complementaridade Mista (PCM), e para sua construção primeiramente é feita a estimação das funções de oferta e demanda de carne bovina para as onze regiões determinadas na dissertação, que são separadas espacialmente pelos custos de transporte. Além desses custos, existem as barreiras comerciais, aqui representadas pelas tarifas. O nível de bem-estar é maximizado nessas regiões e se obtém produção, consumo, preços, fluxos comerciais e se pode calcular os níveis de bem-estar dos produtores (EP), dos consumidores (EC) e o nível de bem-estar agregado para cada uma das onze regiões. Dessa forma, obteve-se o Cenário Atual mundial de carne bovina, sendo que a partir desse cenário base são feitas simulações de redução tarifária multilateral e de acordos comerciais entre o MERCOSUL e outras regiões para se analisar o que ocorre com as variáveis já mencionadas. A partir do Cenário Atual foram simulados quatro cenários de redução tarifária multilateral e dois cenários de acordos comerciais bilaterais. No Cenário Atual as regiões MER e OCE são exportadoras e as demais produzem para consumo interno e dentre estas algumas são importadoras (NAF, ASE, CHI, JAP e CEI). Quando se analisa o nível de bem-estar dos produtores de MER, o livre comércio é o cenário que mais traz benefícios a esses agentes. A segunda melhor opção para os produtores de carne bovina de MER seria a imposição de um teto de 15% nas tarifas de importação de todas as regiões. As outras opções seriam, ordenadas a partir daquelas que trazem maiores benefícios para as que trazem menores, o cenário de tarifas à metade, o cenário do teto de 30%, seguido do cenário de livre comércio MER-JAP e por fim o cenário de livre comércio MER-CHI. O nível de bem-estar de todos os agentes na região MER (produtores e consumidores), denominado excedente total ou ET, encontra-se na mesma direção que o nível de bem-estar dos produtores. Entretanto, o nível de bem-estar dos consumidores na região MER no cenário de livre comércio diminui em relação ao cenário atual, sendo necessárias políticas públicas compensatórias aos consumidores de MER no caso de implantação de redução tarifária. / This study aims to analyze perspectives for production, exports, imports, prices, consumer surplus and producer’s surplus for bovine meat in MERCOSUR considering some scenarios of trade agreements, such as tariff reduction in multilateral level as well as trade agreements between MERCOSUR and other regions. It is used a spatial model using a Mixed Complementarity Problem (MCP), and to formulate it is necessary to estimate demand and supply functions for eleven regions that are determined in this work and spatially separated by transportation costs. Besides this cost, there are trade barriers that are represented in this study like tariffs. Using MCP it is maximized the welfare in eleven regions and it is obtained production, consumption, prices, trade flows, and the producer’s and consumer’s welfare level can be calculated, as well as the aggregate welfare level for each one of the eleven regions. Therefore, it is obtained the world bovine meat Actual Scenario, considering that this scenario is the basis for simulations of multilateral tariffs reduction and trade agreements between MERCOSUR and other regions to know what happens concerning the variables mentioned. With the results of Actual Scenario it is simulated four scenarios considering multilateral tariffs reduction and two scenarios of bilateral trade agreements. In the Actual Scenario MER and OCE regions are exporters and the others produce for their own consumption. Among these last ones, some are importers (NAF, ASE, CHI, JAP and CEI). When it is analyzed the MER producer’s welfare level, the free trade situation brings more gains for this category. The second best option for the MER producers is the scenarios with tariffs until 15%. Other options are: scenario with half tariffs, scenario with tariffs until 30%, bilateral trade agreement MER-JAP, and the situation with less aggregate gains for MER is the bilateral trade agreement MER-CHI. The aggregate welfare level in region MER goes at the same direction that MER producer’s welfare level. However, the MER consumer’s welfare level goes to the opposite direction, considering that the major losses for this group are in free trade scenario. If any level of free trade is implemented, the suggestion is compensatory public policy for the agents that are prejudiced.