The research undertaken during the course of this thesis is an exploratory study of the characteristics of individuals convicted for human trafficking offences between 2003 and 2008 in the UK. This thesis provides a unique contribution to criminology by developing the understanding of those convicted for these offences and the policy procedures that operate to process these cases. The data comprises documentary sources in the form of pre-sentence reports and assessments, interview data from interviews with experts involved in processing human trafficking cases through the criminal justice system and quantitative data in the form of actuarial assessments of this group of offenders. The data is analysed within an interpretative policy framework which views the data not just as a social construction but as a result of particular features of policy-making in this area. The argument developed in this thesis is that there is a globally reinforced paradigm which focuses on a certain type of trafficking and has resulted in the conviction of a group of individuals with some collective characteristics. The primary contributions of this research can be drawn together under three themes; developing the knowledge regarding people convicted for human trafficking offences, understanding the role of the migration journey in terms of pathways into this offending and the implications of this for policy and the historical continuity of these themes. The use of the terms manager and worker, as opposed to trafficker and victim, allow for a more nuanced understanding of these findings and permit a degree of flexibility between the actors involved. This research demonstrates that failing to understand those people convicted for these offences results in a distorted understanding of the activity as a whole and how the involvement fits within wider issues of migration, structural inequality and gender. The findings indicate that migration processes and the status of the migrant operate to limit opportunity. Within this process migrants make a series of decisions and links with others through their networks which forms part of their pathway into this offending. Accounting for the pathways into these offences must build on the push/pull factors in order to fully appreciate the mechanisms behind individual migration. These findings confirm a historical continuity of the dominant themes in this field. The findings and future work in this area must be understood outside of the dichotomies imposed by the historical paradigms by considering the impact of the global reinforcement of policy issues and the complex interplays of power operating between all actors involved in this activity.

Purpose: The overarching purpose of this research paper is to broaden the understanding of the rehabilitation and reintegration of trafficking victims by illustrating and explaining common rehabilitation and reintegration processes of Burmese trafficking victims, girls and women, in Yangon, Myanmar. As part of that overarching purpose, this paper also aims to analyse how and if the victims’ human rights are being properly upheld. The paper highlights the problem of the state’s actions of upholding human security and the right to possess protection against modern slavery, with specific focus on trafficked girls or women as right holders and the state (in this case Myanmar) together with non-state responsibility-holders as duty bearers. Method: The paper is based on data derived from a field study, with the empirical material gathered through walk-along at a trafficking shelter and semi-structured interviews with several NGOs, IGOs and other actors and in Yangon, Myanmar. Analysis: In Myanmar there is a lack of shelter space and not enough focus on the long-lasting impact of trauma in a trafficked person's life. A majority of trafficking victims that escape from trafficking situations are placed in shelters operated by the Department of Social Welfare (DSW-shelters) for a few days before being repatriated to their families and/or home community. This method, i.e., the repatriation of victims to their respective home community, is cost efficient, but not always in the best interest of the victims as it increases the risk of re-trafficking. Some victims are offered help from reintegration programs where vocational training is a common component, but little other effort is made to rehabilitate the victim from their psychological trauma. Many victims that seek restorative justice within the court system do not enjoy a fair trial, as procedures are unclear, and corruption is common amongst both judges and prosecutors. The lack of restorative justice is another factor that hinders the victims rehabilitating from their trauma as it decreases the chance to fully reintegrating the victims into society on a long-term basis. Finally, the enforcement of anti-trafficking laws is weakened by the fact that the Myanmar Anti-Trafficking Police Force is understaffed, undereducated and overworked.

This research is aimed at evaluating the adequacy and effectiveness of the legal framework dealing with human trafficking in South Africa. To achieve this purpose, a comprehensive diachronic as well as contemporary overview of the punishment and prevention of human trafficking in South Africa as well as in the legal systems of the US, Germany and Nigeria is provided. An overview of the history of slavery and an analysis of the modern conceptualisation of human trafficking indicate that human trafficking is a highly complex concept, and that there are various approaches to the understanding of the concept of human trafficking. There are various definitions of trafficking found in international instruments of which the most important has been identified as that contained in the Palermo Protocol. The definitions vary also because trafficking is closely related to the phenomena of migration, slavery and smuggling of humans. The study further identifies some significant root causes of trafficking generally, as well as specific, to the four selected regions. It was found that in South Africa – similar to the history of slavery in the jurisdictions of the US, Germany and Nigeria – colonisation and the institution of slavery and, more particularly in South Africa, the legacy of the apartheid regime has had an impact on modern human trafficking. The research concedes that although common-law crimes, statutes and transitional legislation can be utilized to challenge some trafficking elements, these offences are not comprehensive enough to amply deal with the crime’s complexities and provide only a fragmented approach to combating the crime. The study shows that South Africa needs to adopt specific and comprehensive anti-trafficking legislation that is based essentially on the provisions of the Palermo Protocol, that is, the draft TIP Bill. Although the Bill is a major improvement on the provisions in the Palermo Protocol as well as on certain aspects of the anti-trafficking legislation in the US, Germany and Nigeria, the Bill can still be improved, especially with regard to more effective victim assistance and the combating of local-specific vulnerability factors. Anti-trafficking efforts undertaken in the US, Germany and Nigeria which may be of value also for the adoption of anti-trafficking legislation, law enforcement and other strategies in South Africa, are further identified. iv The research further establishes also that international, regional and sub-regional instruments on trafficking and related aspects of trafficking provide guidelines for developing effective strategies to deal with trafficking within the region. The counter-trafficking strategies as found in treaties (including conventions), protocols, declarations and resolutions – those focussing specifically on combating trafficking and those with a human-rights focus – oblige states to prosecute traffickers, protect people vulnerable to trafficking as well as those already trafficked and create structures for prevention. Regional instruments specifically formulated to combat trafficking as well as instruments that make reference to the issue of trafficking in persons may further provide the basis for long-term strategies to combat human trafficking. However, it was found that although South Africa has adopted many cooperative mechanisms in the form of direct bilateral or multilateral agreements, as well as international and regional treaties and conventions, the jurisdiction has not as yet implemented comprehensive strategies to combat human trafficking. The introduction of legislation to combat human trafficking, and various other strategies envisaged in the TIP Bill and also recommendations suggested in this thesis, should be considered by parliament as a matter of priority. A comprehensive response to human trafficking which includes adequate protection of victims is required in terms of various constitutional imperatives identified in this research. / Criminal & Procedural Law / LL.D.

This research is aimed at evaluating the adequacy and effectiveness of the legal framework dealing with human trafficking in South Africa. To achieve this purpose, a comprehensive diachronic as well as contemporary overview of the punishment and prevention of human trafficking in South Africa as well as in the legal systems of the US, Germany and Nigeria is provided. An overview of the history of slavery and an analysis of the modern conceptualisation of human trafficking indicate that human trafficking is a highly complex concept, and that there are various approaches to the understanding of the concept of human trafficking. There are various definitions of trafficking found in international instruments of which the most important has been identified as that contained in the Palermo Protocol. The definitions vary also because trafficking is closely related to the phenomena of migration, slavery and smuggling of humans. The study further identifies some significant root causes of trafficking generally, as well as specific, to the four selected regions. It was found that in South Africa – similar to the history of slavery in the jurisdictions of the US, Germany and Nigeria – colonisation and the institution of slavery and, more particularly in South Africa, the legacy of the apartheid regime has had an impact on modern human trafficking. The research concedes that although common-law crimes, statutes and transitional legislation can be utilized to challenge some trafficking elements, these offences are not comprehensive enough to amply deal with the crime’s complexities and provide only a fragmented approach to combating the crime. The study shows that South Africa needs to adopt specific and comprehensive anti-trafficking legislation that is based essentially on the provisions of the Palermo Protocol, that is, the draft TIP Bill. Although the Bill is a major improvement on the provisions in the Palermo Protocol as well as on certain aspects of the anti-trafficking legislation in the US, Germany and Nigeria, the Bill can still be improved, especially with regard to more effective victim assistance and the combating of local-specific vulnerability factors. Anti-trafficking efforts undertaken in the US, Germany and Nigeria which may be of value also for the adoption of anti-trafficking legislation, law enforcement and other strategies in South Africa, are further identified. iv The research further establishes also that international, regional and sub-regional instruments on trafficking and related aspects of trafficking provide guidelines for developing effective strategies to deal with trafficking within the region. The counter-trafficking strategies as found in treaties (including conventions), protocols, declarations and resolutions – those focussing specifically on combating trafficking and those with a human-rights focus – oblige states to prosecute traffickers, protect people vulnerable to trafficking as well as those already trafficked and create structures for prevention. Regional instruments specifically formulated to combat trafficking as well as instruments that make reference to the issue of trafficking in persons may further provide the basis for long-term strategies to combat human trafficking. However, it was found that although South Africa has adopted many cooperative mechanisms in the form of direct bilateral or multilateral agreements, as well as international and regional treaties and conventions, the jurisdiction has not as yet implemented comprehensive strategies to combat human trafficking. The introduction of legislation to combat human trafficking, and various other strategies envisaged in the TIP Bill and also recommendations suggested in this thesis, should be considered by parliament as a matter of priority. A comprehensive response to human trafficking which includes adequate protection of victims is required in terms of various constitutional imperatives identified in this research. / Criminal and Procedural Law / LL. D.

Thesis advisor: Lisa Dodson / In the United States, the majority of youth who become victims of sex trafficking are U.S. citizens. Most "at-risk" are those involved in the foster care system, the sexually abused and/or those surviving without stable housing- otherwise known as the homeless. Through in depth interviews with homeless teenage mothers, this study analyzed the connection between housing vulnerability and sex trafficking. The major finding of this study suggests that young girls are pushed into homelessness and sexually exploitative situations when they experience a loss of familial support. Without familial support, young, homeless girls are forced into a patriarchal street economy that limits their options for economic opportunity: men sell drugs, women sell their body. Participants also discussed the perceived effectiveness of structural interventions, including welfare, housing shelters and educational programs. By exploring the intersection of homeless teenage mothers and domestic sex trafficking, this study adds to a stronger dialogue between the homeless and human trafficking fields. Additionally, this study brings attention to the fact that young, American girls are just as vulnerable to sex trafficking as the international victims highlighted in most of the popular media and literary scholarship. Lastly, several interventions are proposed for working at the intersection of homeless youth and sex trafficking. / Thesis (MA) — Boston College, 2011. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Sociology.

This thesis is a content analysis of news about sex trafficking published in the US from 2001 to 2013. The focus of the research is the portrayal of sex traffickers in the news. The project discovered that in the news, the public image of sex traffickers is overwhelmingly people of color who are described to be violent, deceptive and forcible. In addition, sex traffickers are portrayed to make sense of the simplistic representation of powerless female trafficking victims. The portrayal of sex traffickers in the news is simplistic and is driven by the state's response to sex trafficking: punishment of sex traffickers.

Les cancers sont caractérisés par une prolifération anarchique des cellules causée par une dérégulation des mécanismes de contrôle du cycle cellulaire, comme la protéine p27Kip1 (p27). Dans le noyau, p27 inhibe les complexes cycline-CDK, bloquant ainsi la progression du cycle de division cellulaire, et par conséquent, la prolifération cellulaire. Cette propriété confère à p27 un rôle de suppresseur de tumeurs. Toutefois, dans certains cancers, p27 est relocalisé dans le cytoplasme où il exerce un rôle oncogénique, cependant les mécanismes moléculaires par lesquels p27 agit comme un oncogène restent largement inconnus. Des études récentes montrent que sa localisation cytoplasmique permet à p27 d'activer l'autophagie, un processus de recyclage des constituants intracellulaires dans les cellules carencées en nutriments. Dans les cellules cancéreuses, l'autophagie est un des mécanismes d'adaptation au microenvironnement tumoral et leur permet de survivre malgré des conditions défavorables. En outre, l'autophagie peut être induite par le stress causé par les traitements anti-cancéreux, ce qui retarde l'apoptose en permettant aux cellules d'échapper aux traitements. L'autophagie induite par la localisation cytoplasmique de p27 pourrait ainsi compromettre l'efficacité des thérapeutiques anti-tumorales. Le but de mon projet de thèse était de déterminer par quels mécanismes p27 contrôle l'autophagie et participe ainsi à la survie des cellules dans des conditions de stress métabolique. Durant ma thèse, j'ai pu mettre en évidence un rôle essentiel de p27 dans la régulation de l'autophagie et de la mort cellulaire. Mes travaux indiquent que le statut de p27 cytoplasmique ou nucléaire détermine à la fois le degré d'autophagie et la susceptibilité des cellules à l'apoptose induite par la privation nutritionnelle. En utilisant des méthodes de biologie cellulaire et moléculaire, j'ai disséqué les voies de signalisation et le mécanisme moléculaire expliquant le rôle pro-autophagique de p27. De manière surprenante, il apparait que p27 régule l'autophagie par différents mécanismes en fonction de la carence infligée aux cellules. [...] / P27 controls cell cycle progression via its ability to block cyclin-CDK activity. Thus, it acts as a tumor suppressor in the nucleus. However, in certain cancers, p27 relocalizes in the cytoplasm where it may promote tumorigenesis by still largely unknown mechanisms. Recent studies have shown that the cytoplasmic localization of p27 induces autophagy, a catabolic process whereby intracellular constituents are recycled in response to nutrient depletion. In cancer cells, autophagy acts as as an adaptive response to metabolic stress in tumor tissues. Furthermore, autophagy may be induced by various cancer therapies, leading to chemotherapeutic resistance and promoting cancer cell survival. The aim of my PhD project was to determine by which mechanisms p27 controls autophagy and cell survival upon metabolic stress conditions. My results indicate that p27 plays a prominent role in the regulation of autophagy and cell death during nutrient deprivation. The status of p27 determines the rate of autophagy and the susceptibility of cells to apoptosis. Importantly, the mechanisms underlying the role of p27 in autophagy appears to be different in function of the nature of the metabolic stress. Amino acid deprivation leads to translocation of p27 to lysosomes where it participates in the inhibition of mTOR, a kinase that acts as a master regulator of cellular metabolism and autophagy. In contrast, the effect of p27 in glucose starved cells depends mostly on its role in the regulation of microtubule dynamics, which controls intracellular vesicle trafficking. Thus, in glucose starved cells, p27 promotes the fusion of autophagic vesicles and degradation of autophagy cargo. To conclude, my results show that p27 is a critical modulator of starvation-induced autophagy and its status determines the response of cells to metabolic stress. Therefore, p27 may serve as a predictive marker for treatment response targeting specific metabolic pathways and may constitute a promising target for anticancer treatment affecting these pathways.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Georgia State University, 2008. / Title from file title page. Wendy Simonds, committee chair; Denise Donnelly, Dawn Baunach, committee members. Electronic text (218 p. : ill. (some col.), col. maps) : digital, PDF file. Description based on contents viewed Sept. 23, 2008. Includes bibliographical references (p. 195-206).

The creation, implementation, and ratification of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA), as well as the growth of parallel private initiatives against human trafficking, have emerged from a neoliberal political agenda that focuses on redefinitions of labor, sexuality, securitization of humanitarian campaigns, and immigration policies. In this thesis, I explore some of the meanings and effects of those redefinitions by focusing on the affective registers of pity and panic in their ability to mobilize publics toward restrictive forms of assistance to real and imaginary victims of the so-called phenomenon of “modern-day slavery.”

The creation, implementation, and ratification of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA), as well as the growth of parallel private initiatives against human trafficking, have emerged from a neoliberal political agenda that focuses on redefinitions of labor, sexuality, securitization of humanitarian campaigns, and immigration policies. In this thesis, I explore some of the meanings and effects of those redefinitions by focusing on the affective registers of pity and panic in their ability to mobilize publics toward restrictive forms of assistance to real and imaginary victims of the so-called phenomenon of “modern-day slavery.”