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Michael Moore's theory of transactional distance, developed in the age of correspondence schools, contributed greatly to theory building in distance education. The theory needs revision, however, when applied to web-based learning environments, specifically by defining transactional distance to include students' relationships with other elements in the learning environment that prohibit their active engagement with learning. The new theoretical model of transactional distance has four dimensions: transactional distance between student and student (TDSS), transactional distance between student and teacher (TDST), transactional distance between student and content (TDSC), and transactional distance between student and interface: online course management system (TDSI). A preliminary item pool of more than 200 items to measure the constructs of TD, TDST, TDSS, TDSC, and TDSI was generated and sent to a panel of experts for review. Items that the reviewers considered weak or very weak in terms of relevance to the constructs and/or clarity and conciseness were eliminated. After a pilot test and further revisions, the proposed scale of transactional distance was administered to a sample of 100 college students. Confirmatory factor analyses and exploratory analyses indicated that the measurement models, especially after modifications, possessed good fit for the data, and the modified scales possessed factorial validity. Reliability analyses indicated that the scales possessed strong internal consistency, with Cronbach alpha coefficients ranging from 0.8169 to 0.9530. Structural equation modeling procedures tested for the causal relationship between the four dimensions and students' general sense of transactional distance in web-based courses. Results indicate that the proposed model of transactional distance is acceptable. The strongest factor that affected students' sense of transactional distance and engagement with learning was found to be transactional distance between student and students (TDSS), followed by transactional distance between student and teacher (TDST), and then by transactional distance between student and content (TDSC). The findings have implications for the development of a revised theory of transactional distance in online education, and provide strong support for constructivist learning theories and social learning theories, reinforcing the importance of establishing learning communities in online learning environments.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-29T14:23:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Renato de Amorim Gomes.pdf: 5900636 bytes, checksum: d83603fadc8f3f5c606b4caca01f16ec (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-05-22 / This master s thesis presents some reflections on the pedagogical modeling in online education. The study focused on trying to identify what is the influence of the pedagogical model in the sensation of proximity and distance between the subjects in virtual environments for teaching and learning. With this in mind, we sought in some authors the theoretical basis to address the issue, highlighting Behar (2009) and Coll and Monereo (2010) on pedagogical models; Peters (2001), Moore (2007) and Tori (2010) on proximity and distance; Silva (2010) and Mattar (2009) on interactivity; and Merleau-Ponty (1999) and Basbaum (2005) on sensation. In the virtual ethnographic research, based on the orientations from Godoi, Mello e Silva (2006), Hine (2004) and Meister (2011), we observed, in the period between June 2010 and December 2012, the reaction evaluation of six groups of students from an online course of university extension from the Municipal University of São Caetano do Sul (USCS), whose offer took place in two different virtual environments for teaching and learning: a commercial LMS for the first three groups and the Moodle environment for the others. The results revealed that, in the pedagogical architecture - the first of the elements of the pedagogical model, composed by organizational aspects, aspects related to content, technology and methodology there are several interdependent factors that exert an influence on the sensation of proximity and distance, and that in online education the mere availability of technological resources is not a guarantee that there will be proximity between students and teachers, as well as between students and students. We observe that the transactional distance may increase when the structure is maximized in a virtual environment for teaching and learning of a socio-constructivist and interactionist conception (in the case of this study, Moodle) if it offers "expectations" of dialogue between the participants. On the other hand, transactional distance may decrease when the dialogue is expanded in an environment of behaviorist conception (reflected in this study in a commercial virtual environment for teaching and learning) and when the teacher makes use of mechanisms to increase proximity, especially with students who are digital immigrants / Esta dissertação de mestrado apresenta algumas reflexões sobre a modelagem pedagógica na educação on-line. A pesquisa teve seu foco na tentativa de identificar qual é a influência do modelo pedagógico na sensação de proximidade e distância entre os sujeitos nos ambientes virtuais de ensino-aprendizagem. Para tanto, buscamos em alguns autores a base teórica para tratar do tema, destacando Behar (2009) e Coll e Monereo (2010) sobre modelos pedagógicos; Peters (2001), Moore (2007) e Tori (2010) sobre proximidade e distância; Silva (2010) e Mattar (2009) sobre interatividade; e Merleau-Ponty (1999) e Basbaum (2005) sobre sensação. Na pesquisa etnográfica virtual, com base nas orientações de Godoi, Mello e Silva (2006), Hine (2004) e Meister (2011), acompanhamos, no período de junho de 2010 a dezembro de 2012, a avaliação de reação de seis turmas de alunos de um curso on-line de extensão universitária da Universidade Municipal de São Caetano do Sul (USCS), cuja oferta ocorreu em dois ambientes virtuais de ensino-aprendizagem distintos: um LMS comercial nas três primeiras turmas e o ambiente Moodle nas três turmas posteriores. Os resultados revelaram que na arquitetura pedagógica o primeiro dos elementos do modelo pedagógico, composto pelos aspectos organizacionais, de conteúdo, tecnológicos e metodológicos residem diversos fatores interdependentes que influenciam a sensação de proximidade e distância, e que na educação on-line a simples disponibilidade de recursos tecnológicos não é sinônimo de que haverá proximidade entre aluno/professor e aluno/aluno. Notamos que a distância transacional pode aumentar quando a estrutura é maximizada em um ambiente virtual de ensinoaprendizagem de concepção socioconstrutivista-interacionista (no caso desta pesquisa, no Moodle), se este oferece expectativas de diálogo entre os participantes; por outro lado, a distância transacional pode diminuir quando o diálogo é ampliado em um ambiente de concepção behaviorista (refletido nesta pesquisa em um ambiente virtual de ensino-aprendizagem comercial), e quando o docente se utiliza de mecanismos para aumentar a proximidade, principalmente com alunos imigrantes digitais

Nos travaux portent sur la conception et la réalisation d'un environnement interactif et multi-utilisateurs à exécution adaptative. Nous nous plaçons dans un cadre générique, pour définir les mécanismes de gestion des interactions et de l'exécution adaptative, ainsi que la méthodologie permettant d'appliquer ces mécanismes à un domaine donné. Nous utilisons cette méthodologie pour produire un environnement prototype, dédié à la formation à distance et semi-présentielle. Un point-clé de notre approche est la théorie de la distance transactionnelle, qui représente la distance ressentie par les participants à une interaction. Notre principal objectif est la réduction de cette distance en concevant un environnement qui permette de jouer sur les trois éléments constituant cette distance : le dialogue, la structure et l'autonomie. Le travail sur le dialogue consiste à optimiser les interactions, en proposant des modes de communications variés, en multipliant les opportunités d'échange et en augmentant leur qualité. Le travail sur la structure consiste à améliorer la flexibilité des interactions. Enfin, le travail sur l'autonomie consiste à offrir aux participants une certaine indépendance vis-à-vis de la structure. Pour cela, nous proposons une combinaison de technologies issues de la narration interactive, de la contextualisation et de la gestion des ambiguïtés pour construire un modèle de scénarisation des interactions. Le principe est de découper des séquences d'interactions en unités d'activité et de composer des scénarios à partir de ces unités. Une unité d'activité est appelée situation : elle peut être élémentaire ou bien composée elle-même d'autres activités. Les mécaniques de narration interactive nous permettent de piloter de manière adaptative le déroulement des scénarios conçus de cette façon, en laissant les utilisateurs libres de s'en détacher, tout en garantissant une cohérence globale et le respect de règles prédéfinies. La prise en charge du contexte et l'analyse a posteriori des sessions d'interactions permettent d'évaluer la qualité d'un scénario et de mettre en place un cycle d'évolution permanent de ces scénarios. Ces mécanismes sont présentés à travers le développement d'un environnement prototype de formation à distance. Ce prototype comporte également des outils que nous proposons pour mettre en place de nouvelles interactions à distance. Ces outils sont basés sur l'utilisation de gestes, de la voix et l'exploitation du contexte. Ils s'appuient sur des approches inspirées des réseaux sociaux et de la gamification, pour proposer des interactions variées et favoriser les échanges. Le prototype que nous proposons ne requiert pratiquement aucun pré-requis matériel ou logiciel et s'affranchit de toute technologie propriétaire. Nous présentons également une étude comparative des environnements existants qui illustre la plus-value de notre proposition, qui se présente comme un complément aux environnements de formation classiques les plus répandus. Notre prototype a fait l'objet de tests en comité restreint et en simulation de montée en charge. Des utilisations en situation réelle de formation sont en cours de préparation. / Our works focus on the conception and development of an interactive and adaptive multi-users environment. We define mechanisms to handle distant interactions and adaptive execution in a generic scope, and the methodology to apply those mechanisms to a given domain. We use this methodology to produce a prototype environment dedicated to distant and semi-distant learning. One key aspect of our approach is the concept of transactional distance, which represent the distance that users feel when taking part into distant interaction. Our main objective is to reduce this distance through the conception of an environment that can allow us to impact each of the three elements defining it : dialogue, structure, and independence. Enhancing the dialogue means offering more various communication means, and improving their quality. Enhancing the structure means offering more flexibility. Finally, enhancing the independence means allowing users to divert from the structure. To achieve that, we propose to combine technologies from various domains such as interactive storytelling, context-awareness, and misunderstandings handling, to build a model for the conception of interactive scenarios. It consists in splitting interaction sequences into activity units, and building up scenarios from these units. One unit is called a situation, it can be basic or composed of other situations. The interactive storytelling mechanisms allow us to drive the execution of such scenarios in an adaptive way, giving users the freedom to divert from the structure, while guaranteeing the overall coherence of the execution. Moreover, the context-awareness and the analysis of the executions allow us to evaluate the quality of a scenario, and thus make it evolve between sessions. We call this mechanism the scenario's life-cycle, and allows the scenarios to be constantly improved. Those mechanisms are presented through the development of a prototype e-learning environment. This prototype also contains several tools to enhance interactions. These tools are based on gesture, voice and context utilisation. They use principles inspired by social networks and gamification to offer varied interactions and promote knowledge sharing. The prototype we present comes with almost no hardware or software prerequisite, and is free of proprietary technology. We also present a comparative study about the main existing e-learning environment, to position our prototype, which is proposed as a complementary tool to existing learning management systems. Our prototype has been tested by a small number of users, and scalability has been tested through simulations. We are currently planning the use of our system in real-life situations.

The aim of this study was to identify what were the requirements placed on the design of distance education programmes as regards discipline or dialogue and how did these factors impact on student-support in the South African National Defence Force (SANDF). Education in general is used to classical behavioural objective that outlines precisely for the student what has to be done and is one way of structuring the learning materials. The South African National Defence Force (SANDF), by its very nature, is very familiar with this formal structure and style of doing things. It prescribes the way teaching has to happen and how the outcomes have to be achieved and at times in a very formal way. Opposed to the above is dialogue that calls for a move away from the prescriptiveness of doing something. Doing and thinking now becomes more open through dialogue. Education stakeholders now debate the value of certain content, since content is no more fixed, the admission of students into the programme is not fixed any more and the way examinations are set is also not fixed or prescriptive. There is now a move away from the disciplinary way of thinking, that is, thinking in terms of fixed boundaries or discipline any longer – dialogue has opened up options and opportunities. This research is based on the belief that distance education problems in the Department of Defence (DoD) are as result of outdated and inadequate instructional or programme design methods or approaches, and thus lack student-support. The four sub-research questions that emanate from the main research question as posed in this research are summarized as follows: (1) What is the distance learning teaching and learning character of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF)? (2) What is the role dialogue in the design of teaching and learning? (3) How are ‘outcomes’ in transactional distance or dialogue achieved? (4) What is the role of dialogue in student empowerment or student support? The design of this research was based on qualitative approach. The feasibility of the research was assured by focusing on distance learning institutions and practitioners. Literature study and document analysis was utilized as data-collection method. Face-to-face interviews with focused groups and individual interviews utilizing unstructured, open-ended questions on interview schedules were also conducted. In addition, anonymous student reports collected by programme managers at the end of a programme replaced the unavailability of student interviews were utilised. The findings of the study were that the character of structural design of distance learning programmes in the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) resembles that of the disciplinary approach, and is thus prescriptive. Structure, in terms of the teaching and learning strategies and the substance of the content is largely the mode of practice in the SANDF’s distance education system. Communication finds its way into the distance learning system of the Department of Defence as authoritative power source. The main function of dialogue in the system is to vest the interest of this organization as programme directors and instructors are not fully emancipated. Students and instructors find it difficult to engage constructively academically. Learner-to-learner interaction and freedom of academic discourse is hampered as the result of authoritarian and prescriptive doctrine of a structured curriculum. It is then concluded that student support in the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) distance education settings does not address requirements of dialogue. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Science, Mathematics and Technology Education / unrestricted

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The study was necessitated by the fact that the throughput rates of accounting students studying at distance learning institutions in South Africa are disturbingly low when compared to students studying at residential universities. Bearing in mind the magnitude of the University of South Africa’s (Unisa’s) market share of accounting students in South Africa, it was pivotal to comprehend the unique challenges related to retention and throughput of these students. This thesis reports on a case study of the use of mobile phones in an Accounting module by applying the theories of didactic conversation and transactional distance to understand the retention and throughput rates of the Accounting students in an open distance learning (ODL) environment. Considering the landscape of accounting education in South Africa, the specific challenges faced by accounting students at Unisa and the recent scholarly discourse on retention and throughput of distance education students, this study contributes to the limited theoretical understanding of students’ retention and throughput rates in an Accounting module at Unisa. This theoretical understanding has been obtained through combining the transactional distance theory of Moore (1973) and the didactic conversation of Holmberg (1982) in a single conceptual framework. By applying this framework, this thesis makes an original contribution to the deepening understanding of the retention and throughput rates of accounting students in an ODL environment. The study has shown that retention and throughput rates can be improved through the lessening of the transactional distance between facilitator and student and by improving the quality and extent of the two-way didactic conversation in the learning process. To this effect, the study provided empirical evidence of the successful use of various complementing technology interventions, suitable for accounting students with time constraints, to enhance the learning process. / Management Accounting / D. Com.

The goal of this research was to explore how students with blindness (SwBs) use information and communication technology (ICT) for learning at the University of South Africa (UNISA). To do this the critical paradigm was used as a way of viewing the educational world. Underpinned by Transactional Distance Theory, Cultural Historical Activity Theory, Universal Design for Learning and Critical Theory, the study was qualitative and used narrative inquiry. The selection of the participants was made through purposive and snowball sampling and data collected through life stories, in-depth and telephonic interviews. The findings culminated in two major findings: 1) the use of ICT for learning; and 2) inclusive digital approaches. The first has emerging themes, for instance, (a) challenges with mathematical, scientific and accounting signs; (b) inability to access graphic learning material; (c) incompatibility of software; (d) lack of timely access to electronic learning materials; (e) high cost of ICT tools; (f) personal computers and laptops; (g) myUnisa and myLife; (h) voice recorders, Brailler, screen readers and videoconferencing; (i) electronic mail (e-mail); and (j) mobile telephones. The themes for the second major finding include: (a) authentic use of student-centred approaches; (b) inconsistency between policy and practice; (c) testing and re-testing of assessment tools; and (d) regular seeking of students‘ views and experiences. The proposed ‗Inclusive Critical use of Technology‘ (ICuT) framework was developed to and can be used as an effective guide if it is foregrounded by applicable distance learning theories and appropriate technologies. The study recommends the use of inclusive and critical approaches when integrating ICT into teaching and learning. / Curriculum and Instructional Studies / D. Ed. (Curriculum Studies)

Les difficultés croissantes de l’enseignement supérieur en matière d’accessibilité aux formations et de disponibilité de filières de qualité, dans les pays en voie de développement de l’Afrique de l’Ouest notamment, conjuguées avec le développement vertigineux des technologies de l’information et de la communication (TIC), suscitent un grand espoir de faire de la formation à distance une solution alternative crédible des formations présentielles (OCDE, 2006). Or, si la littérature s’accorde à reconnaitre aux TIC et l’interactivité qu’elles procurent des facteurs favorisant l’apprentissage (Karsenti, 2006), la réalité du terrain éducatif lui impose de reconnaitre que non seulement la révolution de la formation ouverte et à distance (FOAD) n’est pas encore d’actualité (OCDE, 2006), mais qu’elle ne le sera que si, pour faire face à la distance transactionnelle, plus accrue en formation à distance, l’apprenant ne se contente plus d’apprendre, mais d’apprendre à apprendre, ce qui exige de lui des compétences d’autonomie. Or, malgré des décennies d’intérêt et d’investissement de la recherche, le développement de l’autonomie sur le terrain reste toujours marginal, les débats philosophiques ayant pris le pas sur la quête de solutions pratiques (Albero ,2003). La question de savoir comment les éducateurs de la FOAD utilisent les solutions existantes, censées favoriser l’autonomie de l’apprenant, telles certaines formes de tutorat et de travail de groupes, n’est pas sans intérêt, puisqu’elle permet de mieux comprendre le terrain cible et sa part de responsabilité dans cet insuccès de l’autonomie. S’inscrivant en droite ligne des travaux d’Albero (2003), la présente étude organise les principes d’autonomie suivant un cadre conceptuel privilégiant l’action et le développement, selon une dimension dynamique symbolisant l’importance du soutien à accorder à l’apprenant, une dimension topologique indiquant la nécessité pour ce soutien de prendre en compte les différents aspects sur lesquels l’apprenant peut exercer son autonomie et une dimension chronologique exprimant l’importance du désétayage. De façon pratique, cette étude, démarrée en 2009 dans le contexte de la FOAD du 2IE (Institut International des Ingénieurs de l’Eau et de l’Environnement), sis à Ouagadougou au Burkina Faso, s’organise en trois articles : le premier tente de comprendre si les conditions d’efficacité de la FOAD, selon les apprenants, formulent un besoin d’apprentissage en autonomie; le second tente de comprendre, à partir des propos des tuteurs, si l’encadrement des apprenants respecte les principes d’autonomie; enfin, le troisième article s’est penché, sur la base des intentions exprimées par les concepteurs, sur le respect des principes d’autonomie par les cours. L’éloignement des apprenants et l’objectif de comprendre leurs perceptions de la FOAD, nous ont fait préférer une approche de recherche de type mixte, à la fois qualitative pour mieux comprendre leur perception (Karsenti & Savoie-Zajc, 2004) et quantitative, pour tenir compte de leur éloignement. Pour la perception des éducateurs, nous avons opté pour une approche qualitative/descriptive plus appropriée dès que l’étude vise la compréhension du phénomène social abordé (Karsenti & Savoie-Zajc, 2004). Des résultats obtenus, la perception des 62 apprenants sur les 170 initialement invités par courriel à répondre au questionnaire, semble confirmer l’autonomie de l’apprenant comme une condition de leur réussite en FOAD. La demande des apprenants pour un soutien accru, malgré l’effort actuellement consenti par l’encadrement, effort reconnu par les apprenants eux-mêmes et qu’attestent les 10 tuteurs interviewés sur une quarantaine au 2IE, devrait, toutefois, inviter à la réflexion, puisque ne s’opposant pas réellement à un apprentissage en hétéronomie. À l’analyse, il apparait que l’insatisfaction des apprenants s’expliquerait par la non-prise en compte des différents aspects susceptibles d’influencer leur apprentissage. De plus, en nous référant aux entretiens avec les 11 concepteurs de cours sur un total de 30, il apparait que, bien que conscients de la nécessité d’adapter les cours au contexte de la FOAD, ni la modularité des contenus, ni la flexibilité de la structure des cours ne semblent être prises en compte. Au final, l’étude révèle l’urgence de lutter contre les habitudes acquises en formation présentielle et la nécessité d’employer des pédagogues professionnels formés pour une pédagogie d’autonomisation. Encore faudrait-il que l’autonomie soit véritablement consacrée par la littérature comme une praxis pour signifier qu’elle n’a d’autre fin qu’elle-même, et non comme une poiesis, pour dire que l’autonomie vise une production et cesserait dès que son objectif est atteint. / The increasing difficulty of providing university education in developing West African countries due to lack of access and inadequate facilities, combined with the breakneck development of information and communication technologies (ICT), have given rise to hopes that open and distance learning (ODL) can provide a practical alternative to face-to-face classrooms (OECD, 2006). However, although the literature reports that ICT and the interactivity they provide can foster learning (Karsenti, 2006), the reality of current education systems forces us to admit that not only has the ODL revolution not been fully realized (OECD, 2006), it will happen only when, to cope with transactional distance, which is a major factor in ODL, learners will not be content with simply learning but will learn how to learn, and this will require autonomous skills. Nevertheless, despite decades of interest and research, real learner autonomy is still marginal, and philosophical debates have replaced the quest for practical solutions (Albero, 2003). It was therefore deemed relevant to explore how ODL educators use available solutions, said to foster learner autonomy, such as certain forms of tutoring and group work. The aim was to gain a deeper understanding of how these practices are applied and their role in the failure to develop autonomy. Following the works of Albero (2003), this study organizes the principles of autonomy within a conceptual framework: interrelations between action and development are described, evidencing the importance of providing support to learners. This topological dimension underscores how educational support must take into account the diverse areas where learners can exercise their autonomy, and a temporal dimension highlights the importance of the progressive reduction of support. This study was initiated in 2009 under the ODL program of the 2iE (International Institute for Water and the Environment) at Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. It is organized as three articles: the first seeks to identify the conditions for effective ODL as perceived by learners, and evokes the need for autonomous learning; the second attempts to understand, based on interviews with tutors, whether coaching practices conform to autonomous principles; and the third, based on the expressed intentions of the course designers, examines course compliance with autonomous principles. Given the geographic distance between learners and our aim to understand their perceptions of ODL, we adopted a mixed methods approach, using qualitative methods to better understand learners’ perceptions (Karsenti & Savoie-Zajc, 2004) and quantitative methods to account for their isolation. To grasp the educators’ perceptions, we opted to use qualitative description as a more appropriate way to comprehend the social issues involved (Karsenti & Savoie-Zajc, 2004). Of the 170 learners who were emailed a questionnaire, 62 responded. The results appear to confirm that learner autonomy is a condition for successful ODL. Nevertheless, requests by the learners for more support, despite ongoing efforts under the coaching system, efforts recognized by the learners themselves and confirmed by the ten tutors interviewed out of 40 approached at the 2iE, led us to reconsider: there may still be a place for heteronomous learning. The analysis suggested that learners’ dissatisfaction could be explained by the failure to take into account diverse aspects liable to influence learning. In addition, referring to the interviews with the 11 course designers (out of a total of 30), it appeared that, although they were well aware of the need to adapt the courses to the realities of ODL, neither site-specific contents nor flexible structures were included in the course design. The study concludes on the urgent need to cast off traditional face-to-face learning modes and to hire professional educators trained in learner empowerment. And the question arises: will autonomy ever be defined in the literature as a praxis, i.e. a goal in itself, or will it remain a poiesis, whereby autonomy aims for production and loses its purpose once the objective has been obtained?