In this paper we investigate the relationship between classes of tree-to-tree-series (for short: t-ts) and o-tree-to-tree-series (for short: o-t-ts) transformations computed by restricted deterministic bottom-up weighted tree transducers (for short: deterministic bu-w-tt). Essentially, deterministic bu-w-tt are deterministic bottom-up tree series transducers [EFV02, FV03, ful, FGV04], but the former are de ned over monoids whereas the latter are de ned over semirings and only use the multiplicative monoid thereof. In particular, the common restrictions of non-deletion, linearity, totality, and homomorphism [Eng75] can equivalently be de ned for deterministic bu-w-tt. Using well-known results of classical tree transducer theory (cf., e.g., [Eng75, Fül91]) and also new results on deterministic bu-w-tt, we order classes of t-ts and o-t-ts transformations computed by restricted deterministic bu-w-tt by set inclusion. More precisely, for every commutative monoid we completely specify the inclusion relation of the classes of t-ts and o-t-ts transformations for all sensible combinations of restrictions by means of inclusion diagrams.

A data acquisition system was set up to measure gas temperatures and pressures at various points on a liquid-nitrogen-powered vehicle. The experiment was attempted to develop a data acquisition method for applications on engines that use liquid air as the fuel. Two thermocouples and a pressure transducer were connected using data acquisition instruments interfaced to a laptop computer to acquire data.

No description available.

Transfemoralor above-the-knee amputees face discomfort in their prothesis primarily due to irregular distribution of pressure and shear forces in the Socket-stump interface (SSI). To quantify this discomfort it is necessary to first determine the pressure distribution in the SSI using sensors. However, knowledge of how sensors should be deployed is necessary to support the testing of said pressure on a test-rig or amputee. Previous methods used to determine sensor placement include discretization of the SSI into several regions or the use of a reiterative method based on pressure readings from sensors to determine the optimal placement of sensors. The former fails to identify high regions of pressure as the regions covered by the sensors may not have high pressure whereas the latter is time consuming and may cause further trauma to amputees as it requires repeated experimentation. With the advances in pressure sensor technologies, biomechanical simulations, and Finite elementanalysis(FEA)simulations it is now increasingly possible to determine an accurate estimate of dynamic pressure distribution occurring in the SSI during the gait cycle. The thesis investigates the dynamic pressure distribution in the SSI and determines an effective method of locating the optimal positions for the sensors using two different algorithms. The first is a Genetic Algorithm whereas the second is Pattern Search. / Transfemorala eller amputerade över knäet möter obehag i sin protes främst på grund av oregelbunden fördelning av tryck och skjuvkrafter i SSI. För att kvantifiera detta obehag är det nödvändigt att först bestämma tryckfördelningen i SSI med hjälp av sensorer. Men kunskap om hur sensorer ska distribueras är nödvändig för att stödja testningen av nämnda tryck på en testrigg eller amputerad. Tidigare metoder som använts för att bestämma sensorplacering inkluderar diskretisering av SSI i flera regioner eller användning av en upprepad metod baserad på tryckavläsningar från sensorer för att bestämma den optimala placeringen av sensorer. Den förstnämnda misslyckas med att identifiera höga tryckregioner eftersom den områden som täcks av sensorerna kanske inte har högt tryck medan de senare är tidskrävande och kan orsaka ytterligare trauma för amputerade eftersom det kräver upprepade experiment. Med framstegen inom trycksensorteknologier, biomekaniska simuleringar och FEA-simuleringar är det nu alltmer möjligt att bestämma en exakt uppskattning av dynamisk tryckfördelning i SSI under gångcykeln. Avhandlingen undersöker den dynamiska tryckfördelningen i SSI och bestämmer en effektiv metod för att lokalisera de optimala positionerna för sensorerna med hjälp av två olika algoritmer. Den första är en genetisk algoritm medan den andra är mönstresökning

Smart sensors have become and will continue to constitute an enabling technology to wirelessly connect platforms and systems and enable improved and autonomous performance. Automobiles have about two hundred sensors. Airplanes have about eight thousand sensors. With technology advancements in autonomous vehicles or fly-by-wireless, the numbers of these sensors is expected to increase significantly. The need to conserve water and energy has led to the development of advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) as a concept to support smart energy and water grid systems that would respond to emergency shut-offs or electric blackouts. Through the Internet of things (IoT) smart sensors and other network devices will be connected to enable exchange and control procedure toward reducing the operational cost and improving the efficiency of residential and commercial buildings in terms of their function or energy and water use. Powering these smart sensors with batteries or wires poses great challenges in terms of replacing the batteries and connecting the wires especially in remote and difficult-to-reach locations. Harvesting free ambient energy provides a solution to develop self-powered smart sensors that can support different platforms and systems and integrate their functionality. In this dissertation, we develop and experimentally assess the performance of harvesters that draw their energy from air or water flows. These harvesters include centimeter-scale micro wind turbines, piezo aeroelastic harvesters, and micro hydro generators. The performance of these different harvesters is determined by their capability to support wireless sensing and transmission, the level of generated power, and power density. We also develop and demonstrate the capability of multifunctional systems that can harvest energy to replenish a battery and use the harvested energy to sense speed, flow rate or temperature, and to transmit the data wirelessly to a remote location. / PHD / Smart sensors are an essential part of planned connected communities, smart cities and buildings, structural health and pollution monitoring, and autonomous systems including air and ground vehicles. For example, these sensors can be used to monitor different buildings functions such as water flow rates, pressure and temperature, smoke detectors, HVAC and fire alarms systems. Most of the current smart sensors are powered by batteries or connected to a power source with wires. Batteries will need to be replaced frequently. Wires will add a cost and weight to the system. On the other hand, energy can be harvested locally from different sources to power these sensors. In this dissertation, we develop and experimentally assess the performance of energy harvesters that draw power from air or water flows. These devices include centimeter-scale micro wind turbines, piezo aeroelastic harvesters, and micro hydro generators. The level of generated power, and power density of these devices and their capability to support wireless sensing and transmission are evaluated. We also develop and demonstrate the capability of using one device to harvest energy to replenish a battery over specified time periods and use the harvested energy and the same device to sense speed, flow rate or temperature, and to transmit the data wirelessly to a remote location over other time periods.

Στο πλαίσιο της εργασίας αυτής πραγματοποιείται ανάλυση και εφαρμογή του διαχωρισμού ακουστικών σημάτων, τα οποία έχουν ληφθεί από το ανθρώπινο σώμα, όταν αυτό βρίσκεται σε κατάσταση ύπνου. Τα σήματα αυτά έχουν ληφθεί με τη βοήθεια μιας συσκευής πιεζοκρυστάλλων και ο διαχωρισμός τους επιτυγχάνεται με τη μέθοδο Ανάλυσης Ανεξάρτητων Συνιστωσών (ICA). Κύριος σκοπός όλων των παραπάνω είναι να χρησιμοποιηθεί η εν λόγω μεθοδολογία στη διάγνωση της αποφρακτικής άπνοιας (OSA). Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο, παρουσιάζεται αναλυτικά η μέθοδος ICA και το μαθηματικό μοντέλο που την περιγράφει, όπως επίσης και όλα τα βήματα προεπεξεργασίας της. Στη συνέχεια αναλύεται διεξοδικά η λειτουργία του αλγορίθμου FastICA και οι ιδιότητες του, με τον οποίο υλοποιείται το πειραματικό μέρος της εργασίας αυτής. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο, μελετάται η ασθένεια της αποφρακτικής άπνοιας (OSA), οι παράγοντες και η παθολογία της καθώς και το κύριο διαγνωστικό σύμπτωμα της: το ροχαλητό. Ύστερα, πραγματεύεται την διάγνωση και τους γνωστότερους τρόπους θεραπείας αυτής της νόσου και τελικά τη μέθοδο του Snoring Detection. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στον πιεζοηλεκτρισμό, και μία μελέτη του πιεζοηλεκτρικού φαινομένου και του μαθηματικού του μοντέλου. Ακολουθεί αναφορά των ειδών πιεζοηλεκτρικών αισθητήρων με τους οποίους λαμβάνονται τα σήματα που εξετάζονται σε αυτή την εργασία. Στο επόμενο κεφάλαιο γίνεται μία σύνδεση των δεδομένων θεωρίας που αναφέρονται στα προηγούμενα κεφάλαια και μία εισαγωγή στην πειραματική μέθοδο. Στο κεφάλαιο πέντε παρατίθενται κάποια παραδείγματα εφαρμογής του αλγορίθμου FastICA με τυχαία σήματα, τα οποία έχουν σκοπό να δοκιμάσουν την απόδοση του. Στο κεφάλαιο έξι, 5 γίνεται η πειραματική διαδικασία όπου τώρα τα σήματα που διαχωρίζονται με τον αλγόριθμο FastICA προέρχονται από το ανθρώπινο σώμα. Η υλοποίηση της γίνεται σε Matlab. Έτσι, γίνεται εξαγωγή του ζητούμενου σήματος ροχαλητού και αναγράφονται κάποια συμπεράσματα για την απόδοση του αλγορίθμου. Στο τέλος της εργασίας παρατίθενται σε ένα παράρτημα όλοι οι κώδικες της MATLAB που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για την ολοκλήρωση του πειραματικού της μέρους στα κεφάλαια πέντε και έξι. / In this particular thesis, analysis and application of separation of acoustic signals is carried out. These signals have been taken from the human body in a sleeping state. They are obtained by means of a piezocrystallic device and their separation is achieved by the method of Independent Component Analysis (ICA). The main purpose of all this is to use this methodology in order to diagnose the Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA). The first chapter presents the method of ICA and the mathematical model that describes it as well as all the pre-processing steps. Then it analyses, in detail, the algorithm FastICA, which is used in the experimental part of this thesis and its properties. The second chapter studies the disease of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), its factors and its pathology and the major diagnostic symptom: snoring. Then, it discusses the diagnosis and the best known ways of treating this disease and eventually the method of Snoring Detection. The third chapter is an introduction to piezoelectricity and a study of the piezoelectric effect and its mathematical description. This is followed by a reference to the types of piezoelectric sensors which are used to obtain the signals used in this paper. In chapter five we have listed some examplesapplications of the FastICA algorithm with random signals, which are designed to test the performance. Section six is where the experimental procedure takes place. The signals derived from the human body are separated by the algorithm FastICA and the implementation is done in Matlab. In addition, some conclusions regarding the performance of the algorithm. At the end of this paper, all the MATLAB codes used for the completion of the experimental part of the chapters five and six are listed in an Annex.

A utilização de sensores e de atuadores cresceu vertiginosamente nos últimos anos. As aplicações centralizadas em sensoriamento e controle avançaram com a instrumentação industrial, passando pela incorporação desses elementos em redes distribuídas até culminar, na atualidade, em redes integradas que possuem inúmeras funções e aplicações, dentre elas: controle, monitoramento, rastreamento e segurança. Entretanto o crescimento do número de sensores e atuadores conectados através de barramentos e redes não ocorreu de forma única, proliferando uma diversidade de formas de padronização na comunicação entre esses e seus respectivos monitores ou controladores. Dessa pluralidade de protocolos emergiu a necessidade de criação de um padrão que permitisse interoperabilidade entre transdutores e redes de controle, bem como a introdução do conceito de sensores e atuadores inteligentes. Nesse contexto foi proposto o protocolo IEEE1451 (Standards for Smart Transducer Interface for Sensors and Actuators). Nessa perspectiva o trabalho em questão apresenta os resultados do desenvolvimento e a utilização desse padrão em duas aplicações de engenharia biomédica. Primeiramente em um sistema embarcado capaz de realizar aquisição e processamento de biopotenciais, em específico, de eletrocardiogramas e a posterior transmissão dos dados coletados através de uma interface sem fio Wifi (IEEE802.11b/g) utilizando os protocolos IEEE1451.0 e IEEE1451.5. E em um eletrogoniômetro, para fins fisioterápicos, que realiza medidas de amplitude de movimento das articulações e transfere os dados serialmente através de uma interface USB (Universal Serial Bus) utilizando como padrões o IEEE1451.0 e o IEEE1451.2. Ambos os sistemas permitem além do monitoramento local, o acesso das informações coletadas pela Internet através de uma instrumentação remota implementada por um Web Service. Dessa maneira foi construída uma rede de sensores padronizada que permitiu demonstrar os benefícios e as potencialidades do protocolo IEEE1451. / The use of sensors and actuators grew vertiginously in recent years. The centralized applications in sensing and controlling advanced with industrial instrumentation, going through the incorporation of these elements into industrial computer network protocols until currently culminating in integrated networks with innumerable functions and applications, amongst them: controlling, monitoring, tracking and security. However, the growth of the number of sensors and actuators connected through bus and computers networks did not occur in a single way, and a diversity of communication standards proliferated. From these protocols, plurality required the creation of a standard to allow interoperability between transducers and networks, as well as the introduction of the smart sensors and actuators concept. In this context the IEEE1451 protocol (Standards for Smart Transducer Interface for Sensors and Actuators) was proposed. In this perspective, this work presents two applications of biomedical engineering using the IEEE1451 standard. The first application is an embedded system for biopotencial acquisition and processing, specifically, electrocardiogram signals and data transmission through a wireless interface Wifi (IEEE802.11b/g) using IEEE1451.0 and IEEE1451.5 protocols. The other application is an electrogoniometer, for physiotherapy, that measures the joint movements amplitude and transfers the data through an USB (Universal Serial Bus) connection using the IEEE1451.0 and the IEEE1451.2 protocols as standards. Both systems allow local monitoring and the access to information through a remote instrumentation implemented by Web Services. Hence, this project demonstrates the IEEE1451 benefits and the potentialities.

Para que um transdutor ultrassônico gere e transmita um pulso curto e receba ecos com elevada sensibilidade, além de uma camada de retaguarda que absorva as ondas emitidas para trás, é necessário que haja um bom casamento de impedância acústica entre a cerâmica piezelétrica e o meio externo (camada de acoplamento). Quando comparado ao acoplamento em líquido, o acoplamento em ar é ainda mais complexo, pois este tipo resulta em perdas elevadas durante a transmissão e a recepção dos sinais acústicos, devido à grande diferença de impedância acústica entre a cerâmica e o ar. Certas aplicações requerem um acoplamento em ar e, para isso, os transdutores ultrassônicos usados devem ter banda larga, além de uma baixa impedância acústica. O aumento da largura de banda de um transdutor piezelétrico pode ser alcançado com o emprego de piezocompósitos, de uma camada de retaguarda, de camadas de acoplamento frontal e melhorias na parte eletrônica. A contribuição deste trabalho visa a estudar e desenvolver piezocompósitos com maior largura de banda para aplicação em transdutores de ultrassom para acoplamento em ar. De modo geral, os piezocompósitos possibilitam um maior fator de acoplamento eletromecânico e uma menor impedância acústica quando comparado às cerâmicas piezelétricas convencionais. Neste trabalho foram realizadas a modelagem, a construção e a caracterização de três tipos de piezocompósitos: piezocompósitos com gradação da densidade, piezocompósitos 2-2, e piezocompósitos 1-3. Naqueles com gradação da densidade,variaram-se os parâmetros profundidade, largura e distribuição dos cortes. O método de elementos finitos foi utilizado para analisar a influência dos parâmetros dos cortes. Os piezocompósitos foram construídos a partir de piezocerâmicas circulares e retangulares. Alguns dos piezocompósitos construídos foram submetidos a experimentos de interferometria a laser, mostrando a variação da distribuição dos deslocamentos máximos na superfície em função da frequência. A partir do espectro de frequência da condutância e dos valores inferiores e superiores da largura de banda foram analisados os deslocamentos máximos nas diversas regiões da superfície dos piezocompósitos. Nos piezocompósitos gradados observou-se que os deslocamentos máximos em determinadas regiões da superfície do piezocompósito dependiam da frequência de excitação. Desse modo, os piezocompósitos gradados apresentaram fator de acoplamento eletromecânico e largura de banda maiores do que os dos piezocompósitos 1-3. Transdutores com emissão em ar construídos a partir de piezocompósito gradado e do tipo 1-3 foram caracterizados e medidos os parâmetros largura de banda e fator de acoplamento eletromecânico. O transdutor construído a partir do piezocompósito gradado apresentou maior largura de banda quando comparado com o transdutor do tipo 1-3. / In order to generate and emit a short pulse and receive the echoes with high sensitivity, an ultrasound transducer requires a backing layer to attenuate the signal going backwards and a matching layer to match the acoustical impedances of the piezoceramic and the medium. When compared to liquid coupling, air coupling is further complicated because the large mismatch in acoustic impedance between the ceramic and air results in high losses during transmission and reception of acoustic signals. Certain applications require air-coupling and, therefore, the ultrasonic transducers used must be broadband and have low acoustic impedance. The increase of the bandwidth of a piezoelectric transducer can be achieved with the use of piezocomposites, a back layer, frontal coupling layers and improvements in the electronic part. The contribution of this work aims to study and develop piezocomposites with higher bandwidth for application in ultrasonic transducers with air coupling. In general, the piezocomposites allow a higher electromechanical coupling factor and a lower acoustic impedance when compared to conventional piezoelectric ceramics. In this work, three types of piezocomposites were made: piezocomposites with density gradation, piezocomposites 2-2, and piezocomposites 1-3. In those with density gradation, depth, width and distribution of the cuts were varied. The finite element method was used to analyze the influence of the cut parameters. The piezocomposites were constructed from circular and rectangular piezoceramics. Some of the constructed piezocomposites were submitted to laser interferometry experiments, which showed the variation of the distribution of the maximum displacements in the surface as a function of the frequency. From the frequency spectrum of the conductance curve and of the lower and upper values of bandwidth, the maximum displacements in the various surface regions of the piezocomposites were analyzed. In the graded piezocomposites it was observed that the maximum displacements in certain regions of the surface of the piezocomposite depend on the frequency of excitation. Thus, the graded piezocomposites presented higher electromechanical coupling factor and bandwidth than the piezocomposites 1- 3. Air-coupled transducers constructed from graded piezocomposite and type 1-3 were characterized and measured the parameters bandwidth and electromechanical coupling factor. The transducer constructed from the graded piezocomposite presented higher bandwidth when compared to the type 1-3 transducer.

Transdutores baseados em cascas piezocompósitas têm uma vasta aplicação no campo de estruturas inteligentes, principalmente como atuadores, sensores e coletores de energia. Essas estruturas piezocompósitas são geralmente compostas por dois ou mais tipos de materiais, como por exemplo materiais piezelétricos, ortotrópicos elásticos (possuem fibras de reforçamento) e isotrópicos (materiais homogêneos). Vários fatores devem ser considerados no projeto de transdutores baseados em cascas piezocompósitas, como o tamanho, a forma, a localização e a polarização do material piezelétrico, bem como a orientação das fibras do material ortotrópico. O projeto desses transdutores é complexo e trabalhos anteriores envolvendo esses tipos de materiais sugerem utilizar Método de Otimização Topológica (MOT) para aprimorar o desempenho dos transdutores distribuindo o material piezelétrico sobre substratos fixos de materiais isotrópicos e ortotrópicos, ou otimizar a orientação das fibras dos materiais ortotrópicos com material piezelétrico com tamanho, forma e localização previamente estabelecidos. Assim, nesta tese, propõe-se o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia baseada no MOT para projetar transdutores piezocompósitos de casca considerando, simultaneamente, a otimização da distribuição e do sentido de polarização do material piezelétrico, e também a otimização da orientação das fibras de materiais ortotrópicos, que é livre para assumir valores diferentes ao longo da mesma camada compósita. Utilizando essa metodologia, são obtidos resultados numéricos para atuadores e sensores em regime estático e para coletores de energia com circuito elétrico acoplado, em regime dinâmico amortecido. Para os casos dos sensores e dos coletores de energia, também são consideradas as tensões mecânicas na estrutura, as quais devem obedecer os critérios de von Mises (para materiais isotrópicos) e de Tsai-Wu (para materiais ortotrópicos) para que não haja falhas na estrutura, que está sujeita a esforços mecânicos. / Transducers based on laminated piezocomposite shell structures have a wide application in the field of smart structures, especially as actuators, sensors and energy harvesting devices. These piezocomposite structures are generally composed by two or more kinds of materials, such as piezoelectric, isotropic, and elastic orthotropic (fiber reinforcement) materials. Several factors must be considered in the design of piezocomposite transducers, such as size, shape, location and polarization of the piezoelectric material and the fiber orientation of the orthotropic material. The design of these transducers is complex and previous studies involving these types of materials suggest using \"Topology Optimization Method\" (TOM) to enhance the performance of piezoelectric transducers by distributing piezoelectric material over fixed isotropic and orthotropic substrate or to optimize the fiber orientation of orthotropic materials with piezoelectric patches previously established. Thus, this thesis proposes the development of a methodology based on the TOM to design laminated piezocomposite shell transducers by considering simultaneously the optimization of distribution and the polarization direction of the piezoelectric material, and also the optimization of the fiber orientation orthotropic material, which is free to assume different values along the same composite layer. By using this methodology, numerical results are obtained for actuators and sensors under static response, and energy harvesting devices with an electrical circuit coupled, in dynamic damped analysis. In the case of sensors and energy harvesting devices, which are subjected to mechanical loads, the mechanical stresses in the structure are also considered, which must satisfy two stress criteria to prevent failure: von Mises for isotropic materials and Tsai-Wu for orthotropic materials.

Materiais piezocompósitos laminados são compostos por camadas de material piezelétrico, metálico e compósito (matriz epóxi com fibras de carbono ou de vidro), que possibilitam obter vantagens em relação aos materiais piezelétricos convencionais, permitindo obter características superiores que não podem ser conseguidas pelos seus componentes de forma isolada como, por exemplo, maior flexibilidade e resistência mecânica ou menor peso. Sob esse enfoque, este trabalho tem por objetivo o desenvolvimento de Estruturas Piezocompósitas Laminadas (EPLA) que consistem basicamente em estruturas multicamadas, através do projeto da sua resposta transiente e harmônica visando aplicações dinâmicas. Entre as potenciais aplicações dessas estruturas, tem-se atuadores, motores, sonares e dispositivos de coleta de energia (\"energy harvester\"), sendo de muito interesse a melhora das suas características dinâmicas e o seu desempenho. O projeto dinâmico de uma EPLA é complexo, porém pode ser sistematizado utilizando o Método de Otimização Topológica (MOT). O MOT é um método baseado na distribuição de material num domínio de projeto fixo com o objetivo de extremizar uma função de custo sujeita às restrições inerentes do problema, combinando algoritmos de otimização e de elementos finitos. A formulação de MOT para o projeto dinâmico de EPLA pretende determinar tanto a topologia ótima dos materiais nas diferentes camadas quanto o sinal de polarização do material piezelétrico e o ângulo da fibra na camada compósita, tendo como finalidade a maximização da amplitude de vibração em pontos determinados (em atuadores) ou da geração de energia elétrica a partir de excitações mecânicas (em coletores de energia). Além disso, é formulado um problema combinando os enfoques harmônico e transiente com o intuito de customizar a resposta da EPLA, de modo que, o nível da resposta seja o mesmo perante diferentes tipos de onda de excitação (transdutores multi-entrada). O trabalho inclui as etapas de projeto, simulação, fabricação e caracterização de protótipos. / Laminated piezocomposite materials are composed by layers of piezoelectric, metal and composite material (epoxy matrix with carbon or glass fiber), which have advantages over conventional piezoelectric materials, because of their superior characteristics, which cannot be achieved by any of its components isolated, for example, more flexibility and strength and less weight. Under this approach, this work aims at the development of Laminated Piezocomposite Structures (LAPS) what primarily consist of multi-layer structures, through the transient and harmonic response design aiming at dynamic applications. Among the potential applications of these structures it can be cited actuators, motors, sonar devices and energy harvester, being of great interest the improvement of its dynamic characteristics and performance. The dynamic design of a LAPS is complex however it can be systematized by using the Topology Optimization Method (TOM). The TOM is a method based on the distribution of material in a fixed design domain with the aim of extremizing a cost function subject to constraints inherent to the problem by means of combining the optimization algorithms and the finite element method (FEM). The TOM formulation for the LAPS dynamic project aims to determine together the optimal topology of the materials for different layers, the polarization sign of the piezoelectric material and the fiber angle of the composite layer, in order to maximize the vibration amplitude at certain points (in actuators), or the generation of electrical energy from mechanical excitations (in energy harvesters). In addition, a TOM problem combining harmonic and transient approaches is formulated with the purpose of customizing EPLA response so that the response level is the same for different excitation waveforms (multi-entry transducers). The work includes design, simulation, manufacturing and characterization of prototypes.