D.Phil. (Leadership in Performance and Change) / The desire for organisational competitiveness as a result of factors such as the changing and increasing needs of customers, deregulation, the globalisation of the economy and work, the increasing competition due to globalisation, the need to control costs and increase efficiency, as well as the fast pace of technological advancement, has compelled organisations to embark on changes that take place at a fast and ever-increasing rate. However, it was noted that organisations are not at all succeeding in implementing and institutionalising change initiatives effectively. There is a high failure rate in the implementation of transformational change efforts, and this is attributed to the fact that managers are not well-equipped to deal with challenges associated with the implementation of transformational changes in organisations. As a result of the high failure rate in change implementation, there had been a number of empirical studies conducted, which investigated reasons behind this low success rate. Unfortunately very few studies have focused on the human side of transformational change. Most of the researches have dwelt more on the technical side of change. This quantitative study was then conducted in order to identify and explore the elements and dynamics of transformational change, which can be regarded as constituting the human dimension of transformational change. Specifically, the main objective of this study was to determine the extent to which the elements and dynamics of transformational change (that is, perceptions, reactions, experiences, personal impact, and organisational impact) relate to the status of the change process. This research adopted a two-pronged approach, which incorporated a literature study first, and thereafter an empirical study. The literature study contextualised the elements and dynamics of transformational change within the Correctional Services environment. An overview of transformational change in the Department of Correctional Services was also provided. Based on the results of the literature study, a theoretical model, which hypothesised the relationships between perceptions and experience on one side, and the status of change on the other, was developed and empirically tested. The empirical data was collected by means of two survey questionnaires – one for correctional officials and the other for offenders, which were administered to 1000 correctional officials and 500 offenders. Methodologically, the study was guided by an exploratory, survey, descriptive, correlational and explanatory research designs, which were underpinned by ontological and epistemological perspectives. All completed and returned questionnaires were computed to analyse the responses of the respondents. The results of the analysis of data showed that the DCS change was characterised by positive perceptions; positive, negative and introspective-anxious experiences; negative responses in terms of emotional reactions and resistance; negative personal impact at intrapersonal and interpersonal levels; and positive organisational impact as the key aspects of the elements and dynamics of transformational change. The discussion in this thesis revolves around the above-named elements and dynamics of transformational change. Through performing exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, a three-factor measurement model which encompassed perception, experience and the status of change, was identified and confirmed. The structural equation modelling found that both perceptions and experiences were the predictors of the status of change.

There is a general scarcity of empirical studies investigating the impact of leadership styles on e-Government use in the service industry. This is doubly true of styles such as transformational, transactional and servant leadership. Theorised models propose that leadership style forms the desired organisational culture for implementing e-services, organisational culture being the mediator and the national culture the moderator. This research fills the empirical gap by investigating how leadership forms the organisational culture that facilitates and enhances the implementation and use of e-government in organisations in Saudi Arabia. The research was conducted through the sampling of employees in private and public sectors. While the data for the leadership styles, organisational culture and national culture were collected through the use of questionnaires designed for employees, the e-services were measured through organizations’ official websites. All data were processed and analysed using computer software (WarPPLS) and SPSS. The results support the hypothesized relationships proposed in the theoretical model, wherein all constructs under study (except for the mediating effect of National Culture (NC) on the relationship between leadership styles and organisational culture) positively affect e-services implementation, including Individualized Influence (IINF), Intellectual Stimulation (ISTIM), Individualized Support (ISUP), Contingent Reward (CR), Management by Exception (MbE), Servant Leadership (SL), Bureaucratic Culture (BC), Involvement Culture (INVC), Mission Culture (MC), Innovative Culture (INC), Task Culture (TC) and Future Culture (FC) and the mediating effect of National Culture (NC) on the relationship between organisational culture and e-services implementation. The results also indicated that specific leadership styles have direct and positive impacts on e-services implementation and indirect influences through a mediating organisational culture and a moderating national culture. The empirical findings bring new evidence in support of this proposal, indicating that specific leadership styles play crucial roles in influencing processes and outcomes within organizations. According to these results, e-services differ from one organization to another, and these variations were correlated to leadership styles and organizational culture. It was found that there were positive and significant correlations between total leadership styles (hybrid) and total organizational cultures (hybrid) in the full sample and in e-services implementation. E-services implementation increases when the mean for leadership styles rises, but types of organizational culture were also crucial factors in achieving better e-services. The national culture variable, which was used as a moderator, did not have a significant influence on the relationship between leadership style and organisational culture. Therefore, the moderating role of national culture in the relationship between leadership styles and organisational culture did not have any level of statistical significance, which means that regardless of the national culture (power distance or uncertainty avoidance) the effect of leadership style on organisational culture in the model adopted in this study appeared to be quite consistent. The study links theory to practice by explaining the subject of modern leadership styles and shows their relevance to the Saudi organisations and business environment. As such, it opens up a domain for investigating the application of modern management theories in a different culture. Although a plethora of studies have investigated the effect of factors such as organisational culture and/or national culture on e-services implementation in Saudi’s organisations, no study (to the best of this writer's knowledge) has tackled the issue of e-services implementation and leadership styles in those organisations. Therefore, studying e-services implementation and leadership styles in Saudi’s organisations is a contribution to the literature on the service industry, adding to its knowledge with a case study from a different cultural setting. The study also opens up a horizon for future research on developing the business sector, as it uses standardized tools in terms of reliability and validity within the context of the e-services implementation. Therefore, this study contributes to existing knowledge in that leadership and organisational culture are revealed to be key contributors to e-services implementation. The three leadership styles - transformational, transactional, and servant leadership - were empirically found to be appropriate styles that work well in e-services implementation projects. These styles have direct and positive benefits to e-services implementation and an indirect impact through the mediating means of organisational culture, and empirical findings bring new evidence for this notion. Moreover, the six organisational cultural dimensions were judged to be appropriate supporters of e-services implementation, specifically: involvement, mission, innovation, task-orientation, bureaucracy, and future-orientation.

Purpose: While it is commonly accepted that organizational innovation is vital for organizations‘ sustainability and competitive advantage, existing literature has not fully determined the relationship between different types of leadership and organizational innovation. The purpose of this study is to seek how transformational and transactional leadership behaviors influence organizational innovation and further examine the moderating role of empowerment. Methodology: The authors collected data from surveying senior and middle level managers from the four largest organizations in Greek telecommunication industry. The data collected were analyzed via regression analysis and the results were compared to the findings of existing literature and studies. Findings: The empirical findings validate that both transformational leadership and transactional leadership positively influence organizational innovation. Additional evidence highlights the importance of specific leadership components, inspirational motivation and contingent reward, in pursuing organizational innovation. Moreover, the results indicate a plausible moderating role of empowerment in the relationship of organizational innovation with both leadership styles. Originality /value: This study contributes to organizational innovation literature by finding that both transformational and transactional leadership can promote organizational innovation even in organizations operating in dynamic environments. Combining and balancing the different characteristics of transformational and transactional leadership can help leaders enhance their follower‘s behaviors towards an innovation-oriented strategy, even in large and mature organizations.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between school principals’ self-reported spirituality and their transformational leadership behaviors. The relationship between spirituality and transactional leadership behaviors was also explored. The study used Bass and Avolio’s (1984) Full Range Leadership Model as the theoretical framework conceptualizing transformational leadership. Data were collected using online surveys. Overall, six principals and sixty-nine teachers participated in the study. Principal surveys contained three parts: the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Form-5X Short), the modified Spirituality Well-Being Scale (SWBS) and demographic information. Teacher surveys included two parts: the MLQ-5X and demographic information. The MLQ-5X was used to identify the degree of principals’ transformational and transactional leadership behaviors. The modified SWBS (Existential Well Being) was used to determine principals’ degree of spirituality. The correlation coefficients for the transformational leadership styles of inspirational motivation and idealized behavioral influence were significantly related to principals’ spirituality. In addition, a multiple regression analysis including the five measures of transformational leadership as predictors suggested that spirituality is positively related to an individual’s transformational leadership behaviors. A multiple regression analysis utilizing a linear combination of all transformational leadership and transactional measures was predictive of spirituality. Finally, it appears that the inspirational motivation measure of transformational leadership accounts for a significant amount of unique variance independent of the other seven transformational and transactional leadership measures in predicting spirituality. Based on the findings from this study, the researcher proposed a modification of Bass and Avolio’s (1985) Full Range Leadership Model. An additional dimension, spirituality, was added to the continuum of leadership styles. The findings from this study imply that principals’ self-reported levels of spirituality was related to their being perceived as displaying transformational leadership behaviors. Principals who identified themselves as “spiritual”, were more likely to be characterized by the transformational leadership style of inspirational motivation.

The role of the principal in school settings and the principal’s perceived effect on student achievement have frequently been considered vital factors in school reform. The relationships between emotional intelligence, leadership style and school culture have been widely studied. The literature reveals agreement among scholars regarding the principal’s vital role in developing and fostering a positive school culture. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships between elementary school principals’ emotional intelligence, leadership style and school culture. The researcher implemented a non-experimental ex post facto research design to investigate four specific research hypotheses. Utilizing the Qualtrics Survey Software, 57 elementary school principals within a large urban school district in southeast Florida completed the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), and 850 of their faculty members completed the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Form 5X). Faculty responses to the school district’s School Climate Survey retrieved from the district’s web site were used as the measure of school culture. Linear regression analyses revealed significant positive associations between emotional intelligence and the following leadership measures: Idealized Influence-Attributes (β = .23, p = < .05), Idealized Influence-Behaviors (β = .34, p = < .01), Inspirational Motivation (β = .39, p = < .01) and Contingent Reward (β = .33, p = < .01). Hierarchical regression analyses revealed positive associations between school culture and both transformational and transactional leadership measures, and negative associations between school culture and passive-avoidant leadership measures. Significant positive associations were found between school culture and the principals’ emotional intelligence over and above leadership style. Hierarchical linear regressions to test the statistical hypothesis developed to account for alternative explanations revealed significant associations between leadership style and school culture over and above school grade. These results suggest that emotional intelligence merits consideration in the development of leadership theory. Practical implications include suggestions that principals employ both transformational and transactional leadership strategies, and focus on developing their level of emotional intelligence. The associations between emotional intelligence, transformational leadership, Contingent Reward and school culture found in this study validate the role of the principal as the leader of school reform.

Magister Commercii (Industrial Psychology) - MCom(IPS) / Purpose - The landscape of the world of work as we know has changed dramatically in the last decade. We have complex organizations compounded by multiple generations co-existing in the workplace. This phenomenon brings about different dynamics in organizations, progressive leaders if understood and managed correctly, could potentially capitalize on. The purpose of this paper is to understand the different generations and whether these generations require different leadership styles. The paper furthermore attempts to investigate whether different generations prefer different job resources. Design/Methodology/Approach – This research study uses a quantitative approach to determine whether there are indeed significant differences between the different generations and the leadership style they prefer as well as the job resources they prefer. Findings - Although no statistically significant differences were found between the different generations and their preferences for the specific leadership styles, the descriptive statistics regarding preference for leadership style across the generations, indicated that individuals from all generations indicated a preference for transformational leadership. Regarding preference for job resource dimensions, the results yielded a statistically significant difference in the preference for Advancement in Generation Y. Originality and Value – This research paper sheds further light on the understanding of different generations namely Baby boomers, Generation X and Generation Y. The paper maps out the preferred leadership style and preferred job resources of generations and allows business leaders an enhanced understanding of their employees.

This longitudinal study evaluates the role of a follower's self-concept and implicit leadership theories on the interpretation of transformational leadership behaviors and the development of leader-member exchange. Leadership behaviors were hypothesized as antecedents to leader-member exchange. The hypotheses draw upon the social cognition theory of self-verification. Implicit leadership theories were evaluated as absolute differences between actual and recognized leadership behaviors. Both implicit leadership theories and self-concepts were tested for moderation of the leadership behaviors and leader-member exchange. Additional dependent variables included turnover intentions, organizational identification, and perceived organizational support. A key contribution of this research is the application of these variables to new organizational entrants. Two-hundred and ten new followers at a single organization completed three surveys upon organizational entry, 30 days post hire, and approximately 90 days post hire. Structural equation modeling was utilized to conduct confirmatory factor analyses and the development of the measurement and structural models. Leadership behaviors were significantly related to the development of leader-member exchange. Leader-member exchange also fully mediated the leadership behaviors. The collective and relational self-concept levels were correlated with leader-member exchange but failed to reach significance in the full structural model. Implicit leadership theories and absolute difference scores were significantly related to leader-member exchange development. Neither the self-concept nor implicit leadership theories moderated the relationship between leadership behaviors and leader-member exchange. Leader-member exchange had significant effects on all of the outcome variables.

The primary purpose of this research study was to explore the relationship between ethical leadership (Brown, Trevino, & Harrison, 2005) and the three forms of organizational commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Secondarily, this research explored the relationship between ethical leadership (Brown et al., 2005) and the four dimensions of transformational leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1994). This study extends recent research regarding ethics, leadership styles, and employee commitment by administering the Ethical Leadership Scale (ELS), the Three-Component Model (TCM) of Commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1997), and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X). The data was collected from a cross-section of 130 business professionals representing a variety of industries, occupation characteristics, and levels of organizational and supervisory responsibility, age, education, and job tenure. The hypotheses developed in this study found positive and statistically significant relationships between ethical leadership and two forms of organizational commitment; affective commitment (r = .55, p < .01) and normative commitment (r = .45, p < .01). The study also found highly positive and statistically significant relationships between ethical leadership and the idealized influence (r = .75, p < .01) and inspirational motivation (r = .70, p < .01) dimensions of transformational leadership.

The research herein was developed to gain a robust understating of the relationship of transformational leadership and work environment in East Africa (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Likewise, the study provides additional data and an examination of what correlation and impact the aforementioned have on organizational commitment. The research faced many challenges, including examining a new model in a high context society that relies heavily on enriched clan, subclan, tribes, super tribes, and communal relationships, which had not been tested prior. Valid and reliable survey instruments included 60 questions from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X), 90 questions from the Work Environment Survey (WES), 30 questions from the Three-Component Model (TCM), and a demographic survey, which ensured research efforts were consistent with previous studies (Bass & Avolio, 1994; Meyer & Allen, 1991; Moos & Insel, 2008). Over 15,121 emails from 63 countries were sent out randomly from the Directory of Development Organizations (2010) database. The degree of accuracy and a high degree of validity was reached at a rate of .05 (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970). A response rate of 36.4% was achieved, which was acceptable for the study. The study relied on English as the language of choice, given that over 2,000 dialects and languages exist in East Africa, thereby reducing contextual risk significantly. The statistical methodology used incorporated advanced SPSS software to process the Mahalanobis distance and Pearson coefficients to test five hypotheses. There were 188 cases available for analysis and 22 cases identified through Mahalanobis distance as multivariate outliers. The findings conformed to previous studies of transformational leadership and organizational commitment in organizations as being highly significant and correlative. Work environment was found not to be significant to transformational leadership or organizational commitment. Therefore, more research is required to understand this phenomenon and to make recommendations to leaders and managers to increase levels of influence and encouragement in the work environment. By doing so, a greater return of investment should be obtained for companies, for work areas, and for the work force, which participates in the global marketplace.

The current study examined the Transformational, Transactional, and Passive/Avoidant Leadership styles as defined by Burns (1978) and Bass (1985) and how they are perceived by subordinates in predicting subordinate Extra Effort, manager Effectiveness, and Satisfaction with management. One hundred fifty IT professionals from AITP, Association of Information Technology Professionals, were administered the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire 5X-Short form (MLQ 5X-Short). The survey measured all nine full range leadership variables and results were analyzed using multiple regression. Three hypotheses examined the relationship between the subordinate's perception of the leadership style of IT managers and one of three dependent measures: predicting subordinate Extra Effort, manager Effectiveness, and Satisfaction with management. Partial support was found for all three hypotheses. In the first, Transformational Leadership and Passive/Avoidant Leadership, but not Transactional Leadership was able to predict Extra Effort. In the second, Transformational Leadership, Transactional Leadership (via a slightly modified "reversed" form as well as the two subscales individually), and Passive/Avoidant Leadership were able to predict management Effectiveness. In the last, Transformational Leadership, Transactional Leadership (reversed and subscales), were able to predict subordinates' Satisfaction with their leaders. Most findings were consistent with existing literature. In addition, this study also identified several areas of further study.