La sécurité dans les mines souterraines est l’une des principales préoccupations des entreprises d’exploitation minières. La surveillance des moindres changements ou déformations au niveau des tunnels et galeries miniers, notamment la convergence des tunnels (rétrécissement diamétral d’une section de tunnel), figure parmi les principales priorités de ces entreprises. Les techniques de surveillance de la convergence des tunnels miniers communément utilisées se basent essentiellement sur des mesures ponctuelles et limitées qui sont généralement longues et coûteuses. Les technologies LiDAR mobiles émergentes et prometteuses amènent des pistes de solutions qui permettent de gagner en efficacité et en sécurité. Cependant, la détection et la mesure précise de convergence des tunnels miniers au moyen de données LiDAR mobile demeurent problématiques en raison des enjeux suivants : la précision des nuages de points, l’irrégularité de la zone observée, la variabilité de la densité des scans et de leur prise de vue, la présence d’obstructions, la complexité de l’alignement parfait des nuages de points. La recherche visée dans ce mémoire de maîtrise s’inscrit dans le cadre du projet « MinEyes » et elle a pour objectif principal de détecter et de mesurer la convergence de tunnels miniers souterrains à partir de données LiDAR mobile. Pour ce faire, nous proposons une méthode multi-échelles de comparaison de nuages de points qui prend en considération les irrégularités de surface des tunnels miniers et qui permet une meilleure détection de leurs changements et une mesure plus précise de leur convergence. La méthode proposée se base sur une approche de comparaison modèle à modèle locale des nuages de points LiDAR mobile souterrain. Les résultats obtenus sont très prometteurs comparés à ceux d’autres méthodes de détection de changement dans les nuages de points LiDAR (ex. : méthodes C2C, C2M). Une analyse statistique des résultats a également permis de confirmer la robustesse de la méthode proposée surtout dans des zones rugueuses des tunnels miniers. / Security in underground mines is one of the main concerns of mining companies. Monitoring any changes or distortions in mining tunnels and galleries, including tunnel’s convergence, is one of the top priorities for those companies. Commonly used convergence monitoring techniques in underground tunnels are based on limited measurements that are usually very time-consuming and costly in terms of process. Emerging mobile LiDAR technologies offer alternative solutions that are far more efficient and lower in risk. However, the accurate measurements of convergence in mining tunnels using mobile LiDAR data remains challenging because of the following issues: limited precision of LiDAR point clouds, the roughness and irregularity of the studied surfaces in the tunnels, the irregularity of the scan density, the presence of occlusions and the complexities of reliable registration of point clouds. This research work is defined as a part of the ‘MinEyes project’ in collaboration with the company Pecktech which main objective is to detect and measure the convergence of underground mining tunnels from mobile LiDAR data. To do so, we propose a multi-scale point cloud comparison method that considers the surface irregularities of the mining tunnels and allows a better detection of their changes and a more precise measurement of their convergence. The proposed method is based on a local model-to-model comparison method of underground mobile LiDAR point clouds. The results obtained are very promising compared to other LiDAR point cloud comparison methods (e.g. C2C, C2M methods). A statistical analysis of the results also has confirmed the efficiency of the proposed method, especially in the rough areas of the mining tunnels.

<p dir="ltr">Experiments were performed in the Boeing/AFOSR Mach-6 Quiet Tunnel to study the effect of flight-derived discrete roughness elements repeated in an axisymmetric pattern near the nose of a sharp 7° cone. The aim of the roughness array was to simulate natural vehicle roughness and attempt to introduce a deterministic roughness pattern with the ability to cancel out the instabilities caused by the natural roughness. The cone was pitched at a 6° of attack to determine the three-dimensional flow field effects of the roughness elements. Tests were also ran at 0° of attack for comparison. Quiet flow testing included the designed-for freestream unit Reynolds number of 10.8x10⁶, and Reynolds numbers above and below. In noisy flow, comparable Reynolds numbers were also tested at to isolate the effects of noise in a conventional flow wind tunnel.</p><p dir="ltr">Infrared thermography and surface pressure sensors were used to document the behavior of the boundary layer. It was found that the roughness pattern was in general unsuccessful in controlling the added boundary layer instabilities as intended at 6° of attack, but it did create different instability amplitudes and heating patterns. Additionally, it was determined to reduce Mack's second-mode instability amplitudes at 0° of attack.</p><p dir="ltr">Additionally, work was done to document and characterize the roughness patterns found on samples of hypersonic glide vehicles PRIME (SV-5D or X-23) and ASSET (ASV-3). These samples were taken in the form of molded impressions of the surface which were able to be analyzed with an optical profilometer and considered for future experimental distributed roughness studies.</p>

A data reduction method has been developed and tested for a high frequency angle probe. The angle probe is designed for unsteady aerodynamic measurements in transonic cryogenic wind tunnels. The probe measures time-resolved total pressure, static pressure, angle of attack, and yaw angle from readings of four pressure transducers. The unique feature of this probe, as compared to a conventional multi-hole directional probe, is that the four high frequency response silicon pressure transducers are mounted flush on the probe tip. The data reduction method is basically an interpolation routine of calibration curves. The calibration curves consist of experimentally determined non-dimensional flow coefficients. Two experiments were conducted to test the probe and the data reduction method. The first experiment tested the angle probe in a Karman vortex street shed from a cylinder. In the second experiment, the angle probe was placed in an open air jet with an exit Mach number of 0.42. Plots of the time-resolved measurements and the Fast Fourier Transform analysis were made for each test. / Master of Science

The finite element method is used to analyze the soil structure-interaction of a protection structure built over the Holland Tunnel. The purpose of the structure is to minimize movement of the tunnel during fill placement in the Hudson River adjacent to Manhattan Island. Because of the large differences in movement expected in the riverbed soils and the protection structure system, two meshes are used to represent the problem. Continuity between the two meshes is achieved using an iterative substructure approach. A nonlinear model is used to define the response of the soil medium, all structural units are assumed to behave as linear elastic materials, and at the interface between the protection structure and soil the load development is assumed to be linear up to failure. The initial conditions in the soils around the Holland Tunnel are determined based on assumed tunnel deformation pattern. An analysis using the at-rest earth pressures only, is performed as a baseline for comparison with the finite element predictions using the iterative substructure approach. The predicted earth pressures are determined using the iterative substructure approach and are found to have almost the same effects on the protection structure and the tunnel as the at-rest case. It is concluded that the downdrag forces generated on the structure due to the settling soils have no significant effects. General displacements and bending stresses induced in the tunnel and pier by the fill loading are shown to be small. / M.S.

M.S.

Modern, high performance aircraft are required to be able to fly and be controlled over a wide variety of flight conditions. In order to predict the aircraft behavior and control requirements over the entire flight regime it is necessary to have a proper aerodynamic model. Flight conditions at high angles of attack lead to separated flows making the aerodynamic model more difficult to obtain. In this research wind tunnel experiments are performed on an F-5 air-craft model at high angles of attack, with small oscillations about the body oriented roll axis. In addition the free stream environment can be configured in one of three ways: l) straight uniform flow, 2) curved flow to simulated a horizontal turn, and 3) rolling flow to simulated a roll motion about the relative Velocity vector. / Ph. D.

This thesis describes the design and initial testing of a transonic turbine cascade facility. It is specifically concerned with the best way to obtain flow periodicity and repeatability through the cascade by the use of tailboards at the cascade exit. The problem of how to achieve flow periodicity and repeatability has not been completely resolved. An examination of the literature available on transonic turbine cascade testing indicates some researchers use no tailboards, some use a solid tailboard, and still others use a porous tailboard. In this thesis, the flow through the turbine cascade is tested for three different cascade exit configurations; no tailboard, a solid tailboard, and a porous tailboard. The cascade is also tested with the tailboard at different angles, to see what effect the angle of the tailboard has on the flow through the cascade. The data acquisition and flow visualization systems are discussed and some preliminary results are given. / Master of Science

<p dir="ltr">The Boeing-AFOSR Mach-6 Quiet Tunnel (BAM6QT) was used for a set of experiments aiming to characterize the stability regimes of stagnation point injection in noisy and quiet flow across an array of different injected gases. Four gases were used in this experiment: air, helium, carbon dioxide, and argon. These gases were injected at varying thrust coefficients, ranging from 0.0516 to 0.5666, using a 7 degree half-angle cone with a 19 mm radius spherical nose and a single 1.93 mm-radius sonic jet in the center of the model. The primary data collected consists of schlieren images gathered at a sample rate of 76 kHz. These data were then analyzed using a shock tracking software to measure the physical locations of flow features as well as through spectral proper orthogonal decomposition (SPOD) to analyze specific modes in the flow.</p><p dir="ltr">Through this analysis, it was observed that three principle modes exist in stagnation point injection regardless of the injecting gas: a high frequency vortex-coupled mode, a low frequency Mach-shock-rigid mode, and a hybrid mode residing between these two modes. The first two modes were observed in all stability regimes, whereas the hybrid mode was only observed in the bifurcated regime. Furthermore, the unsteady regime was observed to be mostly characterized by this first, vortex-coupled mode. Conversely, the steady regime was observed to be driven by the Mach-shock-rigid mode instead. This transition was measured to occur as the thrust coefficient was increased.</p><p dir="ltr">This research also found that freestream noise resulted in an amplified and widened frequency range within the Mach-shock-rigid mode. This same freestream noise did not appear to have an impact on the other two principle modes; however, in some cases the noise produced in the Mach-shock-rigid mode due to this freestream noise did in fact mask the other principle modes.</p><p dir="ltr">Lastly, it was observed that the thrust coefficient, in and of itself, is not the sole indicator of stability in stagnation point injection. Across the different injected gases in this research, transition between the stability regimes did not in fact occur at a constant thrust coefficient value. Additionally, even within the same injected gas, this transition did not occur at the same thrust coefficient value between noisy and quiet runs—indicating an effect of freestream noise on stability.</p>

Les instabilités de versants sont en partie responsables de l'apparition de désordres ou de la réactivation de désordres antérieurs dans les structures de tunnels anciens de faible profondeur. Il est cependant nécessaire de bien comprendre ce qui résulte de ces contextes d'interaction et ce qui peut être dû au seul vieillissement rhéologique de ces structures anciennes. Les rétro-analyses réalisées ont conduit ainsi à considérer différentes situations de tunnels entrant dans un versant : tunnel entrant perpendiculairement dans le versant (tête de tunnel), tunnel oblique par rapport au versant, ou tunnel longeant le versant sous une faible couverture. Les pathologies identifiées dans la structure de ces ouvrages varient en fonction de ces situations. Dans cette thèse, différents mécanismes d'instabilités responsables de dommages récurrents ont été étudiés dans le cas d'un tunnel longeant un versant. Pour cela, une partie de la recherche s'est intéressée aux facteurs d'influence à travers une série d'approches numériques paramétriques. Certaines sont relatives à l'altitude du tunnel dans le versant et à sa distance par rapport à la surface libre du versant. Puis sont mis en évidence des facteurs d'influence relatifs aux caractéristiques géomorphologiques du versant et à son évolution naturelle ainsi que des facteurs relatifs à la méthode de construction de l'ouvrage. Dans une seconde partie, des rétro-analyses d'étude de cas ont permis de caractériser différents contextes d'interactions et les pathologies des tunnels anciens concernés. Des simulations numériques ont été réalisées afin d'illustrer le comportement de ces ouvrages et d'expliquer les pathologies identifiées. Enfin dans une troisième partie, une méthodologie d'analyse des différents contextes d'interaction entre tunnels anciens et versants instables a été établie, conduisant à redéfinir le concept de zone d'influence géotechnique dans ce type de situation. / Tunnels and unstable slopesABSTRACT: The slope instabilities are partly responsible for the appearance of disorders or reactivation of previous disorders in old shallow tunnel structures. However, it is necessary to understand what results from these interaction contexts and what is due solely to rheological aging of these old structures. Retro-analyzes have led to the consideration of different situations of tunnels entering a hillslope: tunnel entering a slope (tunnel head), tunnel oblique to the slope or shallow tunnel parallel to the slope. Identified pathologies of structures vary depending on these situations. In this thesis, different mechanisms responsible for damage to structures were studied in the case of a shallow tunnel parallel to a slope. For this, a part of the research has focused on the influence factors through a series of parametric numerical approaches. Some are related to the elevation of the tunnel in the slope and its distance from the free surface of the slope. Then are highlighted influencing factors related to geomorphological characteristics of the hillslope and its natural evolution as well as factors related to the construction method of the tunnel. In the second part, case study back-analyzes have characterized different contexts of interaction and pathologies of old tunnels concerned. Numerical simulations were performed to illustrate the behaviour of these structures and explain tunnel lining damages. Finally in the third part, a methodology for analyzing different contexts of interaction between old tunnels and unstable slopes has been established, leading to redefine the concept of geotechnical influenced zone in this situation.

This thesis presents the implementation of the upper bound limit analysis in combination with finite elements and linear optimization for solving different stability problems in geomechanics under plane strain conditions. Although the nonlinear optimization techniques are becoming quite popular, the linear optimization has been adopted due to its simplicity in implementation and ease in attaining the convergence while performing the analysis. The objectives of the present research work are (i) to reduce the computational effort while using an upper bound finite element limit analysis with linear programming in dealing with geotechnical stability problems, and (ii) to obtain solutions for a few important geotechnical stability problems associated with reinforced earth, unsupported tunnels and a group of anchors. It is also intended to examine the developments of the failure patterns in all the cases. For carrying out the analysis for different stability problems, three noded triangular elements have been used throughout the thesis. The nodal velocities are treated as basic unknown variables and the velocity discontinuities are employed along the interfaces of all the elements. The soil mass is assumed to obey the Mohr-Coulomb’s failure criterion and an associated flow rule. The Mohr-Coulomb yield surface is linearized by means of an exterior regular polygon circumscribing the actual yield circle so that the finite element formulation leads to a linear programming problem. A simple technique has been proposed for reducing the computational effort while solving any geotechnical stability problem by using the upper bound finite element limit analysis and linear optimization. In the proposed method, the problem domain has been discretized into a number of different regions in which a particular order (number of sides) of the polygon has been specified to linearize the Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion. A greater order of the polygon needs to be chosen only in that part of the domain wherein the rate of the plastic strains becomes higher. The computational effort required to solve the problem with this implementation reduces considerably. By using the proposed method, the bearing capacity has been computed for smooth as well as rough strip footings and the results obtained are found to be quite satisfactory. The ultimate bearing capacity of a rigid strip footing placed over granular, cohesive-frictional and purely cohesive soils, reinforced with single and a group of two horizontal layers of reinforcements has been determined. The necessary formulation has been introduced to incorporate the inclusion of reinforcement in the analysis. The efficiency factors, and , to be multiplied with Nc and Nγ for finding the bearing capacity of reinforced foundations, have been established. The results have been obtained (i) for different values of soil friction angles in case of granular and cohesive-frictional soils, and (ii) for different rates at which the cohesion increases with depth for purely cohesive soil under undrained condition. The optimum positions of the reinforcements' layers corresponding to which and becomes maximum, have been established. The effect of the length of the reinforcements on the results has also been analyzed. As compared to cohesive soil, the granular soils, especially with greater values of frictional angle, cause much more predominant increase in the bearing capacity. The stability of a long open vertical trench laid in a fully cohesive and cohesive-frictional soil has been determined with an inclusion of single and a group of two layers of horizontal reinforcements. For different positions of the reinforcement layers, the efficiency factor (ηs), has been determined for several combinations of H/B, m and where H and B refer to height and width of the trench, respectively, and m accounts for the rate at which the cohesion increases linearly with depth for a fully cohesive soil with = 0. The effect of height to width of the long vertical trench on the stability number has been examined for both unreinforced and reinforced soils. The optimal positions of the reinforcements layers, corresponding to which becomes maximum, have been established. The required length of reinforcements to achieve maximum efficiency factor corresponding to optimum depth of reinforcement has also been determined. The magnitude of the maximum efficiency factor increases continuously with an increase in both m and . The effect of pseudo-static horizontal earthquake body forces on the stability of a long unsupported circular tunnel (opening) formed in a cohesive frictional soil has been determined. The stability numbers have been obtained for various values of H/D (H = tunnel cover, D = diameter of the tunnel), internal friction angle of soil, and the horizontal earthquake acceleration coefficient The computations revealed that the values of the stability numbers (i) decreases quite significantly with an increase in , and (ii) become continuously higher for greater values of H/D and . The failure patterns have also been drawn for different combinations of H/D, and . The geometry of the failure zone around the periphery of the tunnel becomes always asymmetrical with an inclusion of horizontal seismic body forces. The interference effect on the stability of two closely spaced parallel (twin) long unsupported circular tunnels formed in fully cohesive and cohesive-frictional soils has been evaluated. The variation of the stability number with S/D has been established for different combinations of H/D, m and ; where D refers to the diameter of each tunnel, S is the clear spacing between the tunnels, and is the internal friction angle of soil and m accounts for the rate at which the cohesion increases linearly with depth for a soil with = 0. On account of the interference of two tunnels, the stability number reduces continuously with a decrease in the spacing between the tunnels. The minimum spacing between the two tunnels required to eliminate the interference effect increases with (i) an increase in H/D and (ii) a decrease in the values of both m and . The failure patterns have also been generated for a few cases with different values of S/D. The size of the failure zone is found to become smaller for greater values of m and . The horizontal pullout capacity of a group of two vertical strip anchors embedded, along the same vertical plane in sand, at shallow depths has been determined. At collapse, it is assumed that the anchor plates are subjected to the same uniform horizontal velocity without any bending or tilt. The pullout resistance increases invariably with increases in the values of embedment ratio, friction angle of the sand mass and anchor-soil interface friction angle. The effect of spacing (S) between the anchors on their group collapse load is examined in detail. For a given embedment ratio, the total group failure load becomes maximum corresponding to a certain optimal spacing (Sopt). The values of Sopt increases with an increase in the value of , but the changes in the value of H/B and do not have any significant effect on Sopt. The vertical uplift capacity of a group of two horizontal strip plate anchors with the common vertical axis buried in purely cohesive as well as in cohesive frictional soil has been computed. The variation of the uplift factors Fc, Fq and F , due to the contributions of soil cohesion, surcharge pressure and unit weight, respectively, has been evaluated for different combinations of S/B and H/B. As compared to a single isolated anchor, the group of two anchors generates significantly greater magnitude of Fc. On the other hand, the factors Fq and F , for a group of two anchors are found to become almost equal to that of a single isolated anchor as long as the levels of the lower plate in the group and the single isolated anchor are kept the same. For the group of two horizontal strip plate anchors in purely cohesive soil, an increase of cohesion of soil mass with depth and the effect of self weight of the soil have been incorporated. The uplift factor Fcy both due to cohesion and unit weight of the soil has also been computed for the anchors embedded in clay under undrained condition. For given embedment ratios, the factor Fcy increases linearly with an increase in the normalized unit weight of soil mass upto a certain value before attaining a certain maximum magnitude. The computational results obtained for different research problems would be useful for design.