Thesis (M. Sc. (Zoology & Entomology))--Rhodes University, 2005.

Memoria para optar al título profesional de Ingeniero en Recursos Naturales Renovables / Los animales dispersores de semillas son especies clave para la reproducción y persistencia de especies de plantas nativas. Sin embargo, estos dispersores de semillas también juegan un rol opuesto al contribuir a diseminar semillas de especies invasoras hacia el bosque nativo, siendo aquel efecto perjudicial altamente dependiente del comportamiento de movimiento y selección de hábitat de estos animales. Aquí se evalúa como las decisiones de movimiento y selección de hábitat del Zorzal (Turdus falcklandii) lo convierten en un eficiente dispersor de semillas de la invasiva Mora (Rubus ulmifolius) dentro de pequeños parches remanentes de bosque nativo en la isla de Robinson Crusoe. Se usó telemetría para rastrear movimientos de escala fina de 16 zorzales durante el otoño austral. Se aplicó un Modelo de movimiento de puente Browniano (BBMM) para determinar la disponibilidad de hábitat a lo largo de cada ruta para cada zorzal. Se utilizó un modelo multiestado para determinar las probabilidades transicionales de moverse entre diferentes estados de hábitat, incluyendo la matriz de especies invasoras y parches de bosque nativo. Los zorzales tienden a estar dentro de los parches de bosque nativo, con frecuentes viajes hacia la matriz, pero retornando al bosque después de pocos minutos. Este comportamiento del movimiento sugiere que los zorzales se alimentan de mora dentro de la matriz, llevando sus semillas dentro de los parches de bosque nativo, favoreciendo el establecimiento de especies invasoras.

A recent hypothesis for explaining blue-green eggs in birds suggests that they may be a sexually selected signal of female (and thus nestling) quality that males use to make parental investment decisions. Although this hypothesis has found mixed correlational support in a few species, well-controlled experimental support has been lacking in non-cavity-nesting species with vivid blue eggs. In this study, we isolate the influence of egg colour on male behaviour by replacing natural American robin Turdus migratorius clutches with four artificial eggs (all of the same colour) representing extremes in natural colour intensity. After incubation, three unrelated nestlings were fostered into each experimental nest immediately after the normal incubation period and parental behaviour was monitored when nestlings were 3, 6, and 9 days old. For the youngest nestlings, male provisioning rate significantly increased in the dark egg treatment, but the effect of egg colour disappeared at the older nestling stages. This result remains significant when controlling for variation in female behaviour. Male feeding rate at unmanipulated nests was also significantly related to natural egg colour. These results suggest that blue-green egg colour acts as post-mating signal of female quality in at least some cup-nesting species, but does not exclude the possibility that the blue-green pigment also serves other adaptive purposes. / Thesis (Master, Biology) -- Queen's University, 2009-05-28 13:21:06.941

Submitted by ANA LAURA PUGINA CINTRA null (analaurap_cintra@hotmail.com) on 2016-08-08T16:27:31Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação_VersãoFinal_biblioteca.pdf: 1635784 bytes, checksum: c584b0519727c7249e1ec70b143b6d74 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Paula Grisoto (grisotoana@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-08-11T12:49:46Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 cintra_alp_me_rcla.pdf: 1635784 bytes, checksum: c584b0519727c7249e1ec70b143b6d74 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-11T12:49:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 cintra_alp_me_rcla.pdf: 1635784 bytes, checksum: c584b0519727c7249e1ec70b143b6d74 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-04-08 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / O sucesso de estabelecimento de plantas invasoras depende, além de outros fatores, das relações mutualísticas estabelecidas no novo habitat. No presente estudo, nós caracterizamos as relações mutualísticas entre aves frugívoras nativa e uma palmeira invasora (Archontophoenix spp.) e investigamos o potencial de competição por dispersores de sementes com uma palmeira nativa, o palmito juçara (Euterpe edulis), na Mata Atlântica brasileira. As duas palmeiras tem sua dispersão mediada por aves, e ocorrem em florestas tropicais úmidas. Nós registramos 40 espécies de aves consumindo frutos de Archontophoenix spp. e 60 espécies consumindo frutos de E. edulis, com uma sobreposição de 62%. Assim como esperávamos, o palmito juçara apresentou o menor valor do componente quantitativo da efetividade de dispersão de sementes quando em simpatria com a palmeira invasora e sobreposição da frutificação. Nossos resultados indicaram um alto potencial de competição por dispersores entre Archontophoenix spp. e o palmito juçara, mas essa competição variou entre as área devido às diferenças na fenologia das espécies. No entanto, a dispersão de sementes do palmito juçara pode ser negativamente afetada nas áreas onde ela frutifica concomitantemente com Archontophoenix spp. e a população de frugívoros tem sua abundância limitada. No cenário atual, em que a exploração ilegal do palmito juçara vem ameaçando a espécie, diminuindo a abundância natural de suas populações na maioria das áreas da Mata Atlântica, a ausência ou a extinção funcional desta palmeira nativa pode acelerar o processo de invasão de Archontophoenix spp., porque as aves podem utilizar os frutos desta palmeira invasora como um recurso alternativo aos frutos do palmito juçara. / FAPESP: 2014/04938-6

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This study aimed to describe the ectoparasitic arthropod community associated with syntopic populations of Turdus amaurochalinus and T. rufiventris in three areas of the Atlantic forest in the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Brazil from July 2009 to June 2010. This study was a qualitative survey of feather mites (Acari: Astigmata), and both qualitative and quantitative surveys of chewing lice (Phthiraptera: Amblycera and Ischnocera), ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) and flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) for each host species. We analyzed the influence of host body weight and body length of captured birds on the abundance and species richness of ectoparasites in relation to the seasons. Altogether, we captured 36 specimens of T. amaurochalinus and 53 specimens of T. rufiventris. We identified two families of chewing lice, Menoponidae and Philopteridae, with Myrsidea sp. the most prevalent and abundant on both host species. For chewing lice, females were more predominant than males, except Menacanthus eurysternus on T. amaurochalinus. Chewing lice adults were more abundant than nymphs. The feather mite species most prevalent on T. amaurochalinus was Proctophyllodes weigoldi, and for T. rufiventris it was Trouessartia serrana. Analges sp. and Pteronyssoides sp. were not observed on T. rufiventris. We identified three species of ticks; Ixodes auritulus was the most prevalent and abundant on the birds. Ornithoica vicina was the only species of Diptera found and this was observed only on T. amaurochalinus. The greatest richness of ectoparasites occurred on T. amaurochalinus where we observed less mean richness in winter compared to spring and autumn; however, we observed no variation in the mean richness of ectoparasites for T. rufiventris during the same seasons. / O presente trabalho objetivou descrever a comunidade de artrópodes ectoparasitos associados a populações sintópicas de Turdus amaurochalinus e T. rufiventris em três áreas de Mata Atlântica, no sul do estado do Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Brasil, entre julho de 2009 a junho de 2010. Assim, nesse estudo foi realizado um levantamento qualitativo dos ácaros de pena (Acari: Astigmata) e quali-quantitativo dos malófagos (Phthiraptera: Amblycera e Ischnocera), dos carrapatos (Acari: Ixodidae) e dos dípteros (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) sobre cada espécie hospedeira e analisada a influência da massa e do comprimento corporal das aves capturadas sobre a abundância e a riqueza de ectoparasitos em relação às estações do ano. Ao total foram capturados 36 espécimes de T. amaurochalinus e 53 espécimes de T. rufiventris. Identificou-se duas famílias de malófagos, Menoponidae e Philopteridae, sendo Myrsidea sp. a mais prevalente e abundante sobre ambas as espécies hospedeiras. Entre os malófagos o sexo feminino foi o predominante, exceto Menacanthus eurysternus em T. amaurochalinus. Os malófagos adultos foram mais abundantes do que as ninfas. A espécie de ácaro de pena mais prevalente em T. amaurochalinus foi Proctophyllodes weigoldi, já em T. rufiventris, Trouessartia serrana. Analges sp. e Pteronyssoides sp. não foram observados em T. rufiventris. Foram identificadas três espécies de carrapatos, sendo Ixodes auritulus a mais prevalente e abundante sobre as aves objeto de estudo. Ornithoica vicina foi a única espécie de díptero encontrada e esta foi observada somente sobre T. amaurochalinus. A maior riqueza de ectoparasitos deu-se em T. amaurochalinus e sobre essa espécie observou-se também, no inverno, uma menor riqueza média quando comparado com a primavera e ao outono, no entanto, em T. rufiventris não houve variação na riqueza média de ectoparasitos ao longo das estações de inverno, primavera e outono.

Submitted by isabela.moljf@hotmail.com (isabela.moljf@hotmail.com) on 2017-08-18T14:57:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 marianadeoliveira.pdf: 2834097 bytes, checksum: cb4e1b247f99ce571ebcc0f398eeb3dd (MD5) / Rejected by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br), reason: on 2017-08-24T11:29:09Z (GMT) / Submitted by isabela.moljf@hotmail.com (isabela.moljf@hotmail.com) on 2017-08-24T13:16:02Z No. of bitstreams: 0 / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2017-08-30T12:27:37Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-30T12:27:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2017-03-29 / Apesar da grande diversidade de aves silvestres no Brasil, poucos são os estudos sobre seus ectoparasitos. Informações sobre as espécies de piolhos mastigadores (Phthiraptera: Amblycera e Ischnocera) que ocorrem em sanhaçu-cinzento (Tangara sayaca) e aves do gênero Turdus são escassas, o que dificulta compreender a relação parasitária entre esses animais.Dessa forma, no primeiro capítulo, objetivou-se verificar a presença de piolhos em T. sayaca em diferentes fragmentos de Mata na Zona da Mata de Minas gerais. Foram coletados 39 indivíduos de T. sayaca, sendo que destes 25 (64,10%) estavam parasitados por piolhos. Brueeliasayacae foi relatada pela primeira vez em T. sayaca no Brasil, enquanto Ricinussubangulatus e Machaerilaemustangarae foram registrados pela primeira vez em T. sayaca. Além destes novos relatos, a espécie Myrsideaseminuda também foi encontrada em T. sayaca, sendo este o segundo relato desta associação no Brasil. Já o segundo capitulo teve como objetivo identificar os piolhos das aves do gênero Turdus capturadas no Jardim Botânico da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, bem como analisar a dinâmica da estrutura populacional destes parasitos durante estações seca e chuvosa. As aves foram capturadas entre os meses de março de 2013 a dezembro de 2015, por redes de neblina. Foram capturadas quatro espécies do gênero Turdus: Turdusalbicollis, Turdusflavipes, Turdusleucomelas e Turdusrufiventristotalizando 146 indivíduos, das quais 77 estavam parasitados por piolhos. Cinco espécies de Phthiraptera foram encontradas: Brueeliasp.,Sturnidoecussarwatae, Sturnidoecusrehanae, Myrsidearegius e Menacanthuseurysternus, totalizando 1023 espécimes coletados. Turdusrufiventris foi a espécie com o maior número de indivíduos capturados. M. regius representa o primeiro registro parasitário para T. rufiventrise é o primeiro relato no Brasil. S. sarwatae representa o primeiro registro parasitário para T. lecomelas e T. albicollis no Brasil. Para T. flavipes, as três espécies de piolhos aqui encontradas são registros novos de parasitismo. S.rehanae além de ser um novo registro de hospedeiro em T. flavipes, é o primeiro relato no Brasil. O presente trabalho amplia o conhecimento geográfico destes parasitos e mostra a sua dinâmica parasitária em aves silvestres em fragmentos de Mata Atlântica em Minas Gerais. / Despite the great diversity of wild birds in Brazil, there are few studies on their ectoparasites. Information on chewing lice species (Phthiraptera: Amblycera andIschnocera) occurring on the tanager (Tangarasayaca) and thrushes (Turdus genus) are scarce, hindering the comprehension of the parasitary relations of these animals. On this sense, in the first chapter, we aimed to verify the presence of louse in T. sayaca in different forest fragments in Zona da Mata, Minas Gerais state. We collected 39 T. sayacaindividuals, and 25 of these were parasitized by louse (64.10%). Brueeliasayacaewas recorded for the first time in T. sayacain Brazil, while Ricinussubangulatus andMachaerilaemustangaraewere related for the first time on the species. Aside from these new records, the species Myrsideaseminuda was also found on T. sayaca, making it the second record for this association in Brazil. In the second chapter, our goal was to identify the louse on birds of the Turdusgenus captured at the Botanic Garden of Federal University of Juiz de Fora in Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais state, and to analyze the population dynamics of such parasites during the dry and the rainy seasons. Birds were captured between the March 2013 and December 2015 through mist nets. Four species of Turdus were captured: Turdusalbicolis,Turdusflavipes, Turdusleucomelas andTurdusrufiventris, totaling 146 individuals, of which 77 were parasitized by louse. Five species of Phthiapterawere found: Brueelia sp.,Sturnidoecussarwatae, Sturnidoecusrehanae, Myrsidearegiusand Menacanthuseurysternus, totaling 1023 sampled specimens. Turdusrufiventris was the species the highest number of captured individuals. Myrsidearegius represents the first parasitary record for T. lecomelas and T. albicolis in Brazil. For T. flavipes, all three species of lice found in our study are new parasitary records. Sturnidoecusrehanae is not only a first host record in T. flavipes but also a first record in Brazil. Our work widens the parasites’ known geographic distribution and shows their parasitary dynamic in wild birds in Atlantic Forest fragments in Minas Gerais.

This study investigated the biology of the Olive Thrush Turdus olivaceus olivaceus in Grahamstown, South Africa from 1998 to 2003. Behavioural differences between males and females, parent-young interactions, development of fledglings, and the role of song and moult in territorial behaviour were investigated. Comparisons of biometrics, moult and survival were made using Olive Thrush ringing data from other regions. There were no significant differences in mass, wing length or survival rate between the Eastern and Western Cape provinces, but primary wing moult started earlier in the Western Cape and coincided with the end of the main breeding periods in both provinces. Both males and females of breeding pairs remained in and defended their territories throughout the year, but there was some evidence that territorial defence was strongest during the breeding periods. Roughly, every 100 eggs laid produce 50 fledglings. Out of these 20 to 30 reach the age of independence at approximately 50 days, and only five of these juvenile birds reach maturity. Adult survival was estimated at 80%, with a mean life expectancy of 4.5 years and a conservative estimate of maximum lifespan of 11 years. Using ringing data and museum specimens, the Olive Thrush was compared with the Karoo Thrush Turdus smithi, a former race of the Olive Thrush. Olive Thrushes had shorter bills and wings, but were heavier than Karoo Thrushes from the Cradock district. There were also differences in bill and eye-ring colouration between these populations. No morphological differences were found between the sexes in either species.

Submitted by Edisangela Bastos (edisangela@ufpa.br) on 2013-08-02T20:48:43Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertacao_DimorfismoSexualTamanho.pdf: 143594477 bytes, checksum: 84a6bb6c410ca1c3fe5b6e69b41d397d (MD5) license_rdf: 23898 bytes, checksum: e363e809996cf46ada20da1accfcd9c7 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Rosa Silva(arosa@ufpa.br) on 2013-08-16T14:40:54Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertacao_DimorfismoSexualTamanho.pdf: 143594477 bytes, checksum: 84a6bb6c410ca1c3fe5b6e69b41d397d (MD5) license_rdf: 23898 bytes, checksum: e363e809996cf46ada20da1accfcd9c7 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-08-16T14:40:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertacao_DimorfismoSexualTamanho.pdf: 143594477 bytes, checksum: 84a6bb6c410ca1c3fe5b6e69b41d397d (MD5) license_rdf: 23898 bytes, checksum: e363e809996cf46ada20da1accfcd9c7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 1997 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Três espécies de sabiás se substituem ecologicamente nas florestas primárias e secundárias na Amazônia Oriental: Turdus albicollis, T. fumigatus e T. leucomelas . Estas três espécies são monocromáticas, isto é, machos e fêmeas possuem plumagem semelhante. O que não se conhecia é se estas espécies são também monomórficas, isto é, se machos e fêmeas possuem tamanho igual. Estudos nas florestas mexicanas indicam que algumas aves monocromáticas Neotropicais são de fato cripticamente dimórficas, ou seja, machos e fêmeas diferem estatisticamente em tamanho quando técnicas estatísticas apropriadas são usadas. Este trabalho teve três objetivos principais: (a) avaliar o padrão de dimorfismo sexual quanto ao tamanho em T. albicollis phaeopygus, T. fumigatus fumigatus e T. leucomelas albiventer; (b) contribuir para o estudo do dimorfismo sexual quanto ao tamanho em aves monocromáticas Neotropicais e (c) fornecer subsídios para o estudo ecológico-evolutivo do gênero Turdus , em particular, e da família Turdidae, em geral. A hipótese de trabalho era que as três espécies de Turdus analisadas seriam cripticamente dimórficas, tais como os outros passeriformes florestais estudados nas florestas mexicanas. Concluiu-se que das três espécies estudadas, duas são monomórficas ( T. f. fumigatus e T. a. phaeopygus ) e uma é cripticamente dimórfica ( T. l. albiventer ). Na única espécie cripticamente dimórfica, machos diferem significativamente das fêmeas quanto ao comprimento da asa, cauda, tarso e unha do quarto dedo. Mesmo assim, a função linear discriminante gerada, não permite uma sexagem segura dos espécimes. A razão de as três espécies de Turdus mostrarem-se monomórficas ou cripticamente dimórficas talvez esteja associada ao seu comportamento pré-reprodutivo. Durante o período de acasalamento, a vocalização seria um instrumento mais importante de atração de fêmeas e determinação do território do que a plumagem ou o tamanho. Assim, existiria forte pressão seletiva sobre a vocalização dos machos é fraca ou inexistente pressão seletiva sobre o tamanho do corpo. Sugere-se a realização de mais estudos de dimorfismo sexual em outras espécies de Turdus e de análise filogenética deste gênero, para se esclarecer a evolução dos padrões de dimorfismo sexual em sabiás. / Three species of Brazilian thrushes replace one another ecologlcally along the primary and secondary forests of the Eastern Amazonian Region, Turdus T fumigatus and T. leucomelas. These three species are monochromatic, i. e., me and female have similar plumages. Whether these species are monomorphic (i.e., if males and females are of similar size) or not has not been previously investigated. Studies in Mexican forests indicated that some monochromatic birds from the Neotropical Region are in fact cryptically dimorphic, i. e., males and females differ statistically in size when suitable statistic techniques are appiled. This work has three main objectives: (a) to evaluate the pattern of sexual dimorphism in size in T. albicollis phaeopygus, T. fumigatus fumigatus and T. ieucomelas albiventer, (b) to contribute to the study of the sexual dimorphism in size of Neotropical monochromatic birds, and (c) to provide subsidies for evolutionary and ecological studies on the genus Turdus, and also on the family Turdidae as a whole. The working hypothesis here was the three species of Turdus studied would be cryptically dimorphic in a pattern similar to the passeriform forest birds previously studied in the Mexican forests. Of the three species studied, two were found to be monomorphic (T. f fumigatus and T. a. phaeopygus) and one cryptically dimorphic (T. 1. albiventer). In the only cryptically dimorphic species, males differ significantly from females in the length of the wing, tad, tarsus and fourth toe claw. However, a reliable sexual identification cannot be performed from the discriminant linear function obtained. The reason the three species of Turdus are monomorphic or cryptically dimorphic may be associated with their pre-reproductive behavior. During the mating season. vocalization seems to be more important to attract females and for territorial defense than plumage or size. Thus, there is a strong selective pressure for vocalization of males and weak or non-existent pressure for body size. It is suggested that more research for the evaluation of sexual dimorphism in other species of Turdus and. a phylogenetic analysis of this large genus are indispensable in clarifying the evolution of patterns of sexual dimorphism in thrushes.

Abstract Cities represent a new environment where organisms are exposed to different environmental conditions than the original natural habitats. This is essentially a noise and light pollution. The growing number of studies show that these factors can have a significant impact on voice activity of birds.Light pollution may alter the timing of vocalization.Urban noise can overlay the acoustic signals of birds, change the melody, volume, and the timing of singing. The main objective of this thesis was to investigate the influence of noise and light pollution to voice activity Blackbird (Turdus merula). In 2015 it was recorded vocalizations to 4 types of sites: a) on the site only with noise pollution (unlit busy road), b) on the site only with light pollution (Parks), c) on location with noise and light pollution (busy roads in cities), d) on the site without the noise and light pollution (forests). Recording was done with the help of voice recorders from early March until the end of May when the weather was good (no strong winds and storms) every week to thoroughly map the seasonal voice activity of the birds. Quiet location and localities with noise pollution have been in the woods near the town of Beroun near the D5 highway. Locations with light and noisy pollution is found in Hradec Kralove and Prague. In each locality they were searched individuals Blackbird and placed recorder into their territory. The recordings were taken 180 minutes before sunset, throughout the night and morning was the end of the recording 180 minutes after sunrise. The results showed the influence of the sites primarily on the morning vocalization when in the localities affected by light and noise vocalized significantly earlier than the quiet and noisy areas. In the evening times was vocalization without significant differences. The greatest intensity of vocalizations Blackbird was light-noisy areas, opposite to others. The evening was the greatest intensity of the sound recorded in quiet locations. Finally, the night vocalization has been demonstrated only in localities light-noisy.

To characterise the habitat preferences of ring ouzel (Turdus torquatus) and blackbird (T. merula) in Switzerland, we adopt species distribution modelling and predict the species’ spatial distribution. We model on two different scales to analyse in how far downscaling leads to a different set of predictors to describe the realised habitat best. While the models on macroscale (grid of one square kilometre) cover the entire country, we select a set of smaller plots for modelling on territory scale. Whereas ring ouzels occur in altitudes above 1’000 m a.s.l. only, blackbirds occur from the lowlands up to the timber line. The altitudinal range overlap of the two species is up to 400 m. Despite both species coexist on macroscale, a direct niche overlap on territory scale is rare. Small-scale differences in vegetation cover and structure seem to play a dominant role for habitat selection. On macroscale however, we observe a high dependency on climatic variables mainly representing the altitudinal range and the related forest structure preferred by the two species. Applying the models for climate change scenarios, we predict a decline of suitable habitat for the ring ouzel with a simultaneous median altitudinal shift of +440 m until 2070. In contrast, the blackbird is predicted to benefit from higher temperatures and expand its range to higher elevations. / Unter Verwendung von Habitatmodellen beschreiben wir die Habitatpräferenz von Amsel (Turdus merula) und Ringdrossel (T. torquatus) in der Schweiz. Mit Hilfe verschiedener Klimaszenarien prognostizieren wir zudem die künftige potentielle Verbreitung beider Arten. Zur Beschreibung eines eventuell auftretenden Skalensprungs, d.h. einer Änderung in der Beschreibungskraft der Variablen auf verschiedenen räumlichen Ebenen, erstellten wir Modelle auf zwei unterschiedlichen Skalen. Während das Modell auf Makroskala mit einer Maschenweite von einem Quadratkilometer die gesamte Schweiz abdeckt, erstellten wir zudem eine Auswahl an Untersuchungsgebieten auf Revierebene. Ringdrosseln zeigen ihren Verbreitungsschwerpunkt in der subalpinen Lage, während Amseln vornehmlich das Tiefland und die Tallagen besiedeln und nur vereinzelt in hohe Lagen vordringen. In einem Gürtel von ungefähr 400 Höhenmetern siedeln beide Arten parallel.Trotz dieses auf der Makroskala erkennbaren Überschneidungsbereiches konnten wir in unserer Untersuchung auf Revierebene, von einer Ausnahme abgesehen, keine Koexistenz beobachten. Kleinräumige Unterschiede in der Habitatstruktur, insbesondere in der Vegetationsbedeckung scheinen demnach für die Habitatselektion von maßgeblicher Bedeutung zu sein. Auf Makroebene hingegen wurde der Einfluss klimatischer Variablen deutlich, die neben der Höhenlage auch dort typische Vegetationsstrukturen widerspiegeln. Wie die Klimaszenarien zeigen, nehmen geeignete Ringdrosselhabitate bei steigenden Temperaturen ab und die Art weicht im Mittel um 440 m in höhere Lagen zurück. Für Amseln scheint sich eine zunehmende Erwärmung jedoch positiv auszuwirken, während das Verbreitungsgebiet im Tiefland beibehalten wird, dringt sie von den Tälern ausgehend zunehmend in höhere Lagen vor.