Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) are a recently emerged group of pathogens that can cause fatal infections in the young and elderly. EHEC utilize a virulence factor delivery organelle called a ’Type 3 secretion system’ that results in the formation of characteristic ‘pedestal structures’ on epithelial cells allowing colonization in the human or ruminant gastrointestinal tract. To achieve this, effector proteins have to be injected into host cells. The SepL-SepD complex has been shown to be key for controlling T3-related protein secretion in EHEC. Lack of either protein results in effector hypersecretion and strongly impaired secretion of EspADB translocon proteins. Therefore, the expression and function of SepL was the focus of my PhD research. The expression of SepL was shown to be heterogeneous and co-expressed with EspA filaments in EHEC O157 strains. My work revealed two transcriptional regulators (Ler and SepD) and two putative posttranscriptional regulators (Hfq and CsrA) of SepL expression. Further experiments mapped a key mRNA region required for heterogeneous expression of SepL. This sequence forms a predicted hairpin structure around the Shine-Dalgarno (SD) site of sepL. A model has been formed based on my data in which Hfq and CsrABCD bind to the mRNA potentially competing to control translation. Functionally, the C-terminus of SepL was found to be expendable for 1) SepD binding; 2) SepL membrane localization and 3) translocon export, however it was required for 1) limiting effector secretion via (2) a Tir interaction which might be disassociated by (3) an EscD interaction once host cell signals are sensed. Previously, the concept of two different types of T3 secretion signal were demonstrated in Yersinia spp, I tested this hypothesis in EHEC using both wild type and SepL/SepD deficient EHEC strains. SepL/SepD is required for the N-terminal signal pathway but not a chaperone binding domain signal pathway. A 12aa NleA which only contained an N-terminal signal was shown to bind to SepD and so did the multi-functional T3 chaperone ― CesT. Finally, Far-Western assays demonstrated that SepL only interacted with Tir while SepD could bind other effector proteins indicating that SepL/SepD may act as a targeting hub for effector protein secretion.

La pathogénicité de P. aeruginosa (P. a) repose sur de nombreux facteurs de virulence dont le système de sécrétion de type III (SST3). Ce complexe multiprotéique est constitué d'une aiguille se terminant par un translocon composé des protéines PopB et PopD. En s'insérant dans les membranes plasmiques, le translocon permet le passage des exotoxines dans le cytoplasme de la cellule cible. L'induction de la synthèse et de la sécrétion des exotoxines est dépendante d'un contact entre P. a et la cellule cible. Dans ce travail, nous avons examiné l'influence de facteurs cellulaires sur l'efficacité de translocation des toxines. L'utilisation d'un système rapporteur fluorescent CCF2/β-lactamase a permis de visualiser l'injection de toxine. En parallèle, l'association des protéines du translocon avec la membrane de la cellule hôte a été évaluée par immunodétection de PopB/D après fractionnement des membranes sur gradient de sucrose. Les cellules promyelocytaires HL-60 et promonocytaires U937 sont résistantes à l'injection de toxine, bien que PopB et PopD soient associées à la membrane. Après différenciation en neutrophiles, or monocytes/macrophages, ces cellules deviennent sensibles à l'injection sans que l'on détecte de variation notable de la quantité de protéines du translocon insérées dans la membrane. Le traitement des cellules HL-60 sensibles avec un agent déplétant le cholestérol, entraine une diminution de l'injection de toxine. De plus, la protéine PopB est retrouvée dans la fraction membranaire, obtenue par purification sur gradient de sucrose, contenant le marqueur des radeaux lipidiques flotilline. Par une approche pharmacologique, nous apportons la preuve que, en plus de la composition de la membrane, des voies de signalisation intracellulaires impliquées dans la polymérisation de l'actine sont essentielles pour la formation d'un pore fonctionnel. / The pathogenesis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P.a) implies multiple virulence factors among which the type III secretion system (T3SS). This multiprotein complex is composed of a needle through which four exotoxins are exported. The protein PopB and PopD form an oligomeric structure (translocon) at the end of the needle that inserts into the host cell membrane and translocates the exotoxins into the cytoplasm. Synthesis and toxin secretion is induced on contact with eukaryotic cell. In this work, we examined the influence of host cell elements on exotoxin translocation efficiency. The delivery of T3SS toxins was investigated using a CCF2/β-lactamase fluorescent reporter system In parallel, the association of translocon proteins with host plasma membranes was evaluated by immunodetection of PopB/D following sucrose gradient fractionation of membranes. Promyelocytic HL-60 cells and promonocytic U937 cells were found to be resistant to toxin injection even though PopB/D associated with host cell plasma membranes. Differentiation of these cells to neutrophil- or macrophage-like cells resulted in an injection-sensitive phenotype without any significant change in the level of membrane-inserted translocon proteins. Treatment of sensitive HL-60 cells with a cholesterol-depleting agent, resulted in a diminished injection of toxin. Moreover, the PopB translocator was found in the membrane fraction obtained from sucrose-gradient purifications and containing lipid-raft marker flotillin. Through a pharmacological approach, we brought evidence that, in addition to membrane composition, some general signalling pathways involved in actin polymerization may be critical for the formation of a functional pore.

Les EHEC de sérotype O157:H7 sont des agents zoonotiques d’origine alimentaire ou hydrique. Ce sont des pathogènes émergeants qui causent chez l’humain des épidémies de gastro-entérite aiguë et parfois un syndrome hémolytique-urémique. Les EHEC réussissent leur transmission à l’humain à partir de leur portage commensal chez l’animal en passant par l’étape de survie dans l’environnement. L’endosymbiose microbienne est une des stratégies utilisées par les bactéries pathogènes pour survivre dans les environnements aquatiques. Les amibes sont des protozoaires vivants dans divers écosystèmes et connus pour abriter plusieurs agents pathogènes. Ainsi, les amibes contribueraient à transmettre les EHEC à l'humain. La première partie de mon projet de thèse est centrée sur l'interaction de l’amibe Acanthamoeba castellanii avec les EHEC. Les résultats montrent que la présence de cette amibe prolonge la persistance des EHEC, et ces dernières survivent à leur phagocytose par les amibes. Ces résultats démontrent le potentiel réel des amibes à héberger les EHEC et à contribuer à leur transmission. Cependant, l’absence de Shiga toxines améliore leur taux de survie intra-amibe. Par ailleurs, les Shiga toxines sont partiellement responsables de l’intoxication des amibes par les EHEC. Cette implication des Shiga toxines dans le taux de survie intracellulaire et dans la mortalité des amibes démontre l’intérêt d’utiliser les amibes comme modèle d'interaction hôte/pathogène pour étudier la pathogénicité des EHEC. Durant leur cycle de transmission, les EHEC rencontrent des carences en phosphate inorganique (Pi) dans l’environnement. En utilisant conjointement le système à deux composantes (TCS) PhoB-R et le système Pst (transport spécifique de Pi), les EHEC détectent et répondent à cette variation en Pi en activant le régulon Pho. La relation entre la virulence des EHEC, le PhoB-R-Pst et/ou le Pi environnemental demeure inconnue. La seconde partie de mon projet explore le rôle du régulon Pho (répondant à un stress nutritif de limitation en Pi) dans la virulence des EHEC. L’analyse transcriptomique montre que les EHEC répondent à la carence de Pi par une réaction complexe impliquant non seulement un remodelage du métabolisme général, qui est critique pour sa survie, mais aussi en coordonnant sa réponse de virulence. Dans ces conditions le régulateur PhoB contrôle directement l’expression des gènes du LEE et de l’opéron stx2AB. Ceci est confirmé par l’augmentation de la sécrétion de l’effecteur EspB et de la production et sécrétion de Stx2 en carence en Pi. Par ailleurs, l’activation du régulon Pho augmente la formation de biofilm et réduit la motilité chez les EHEC. Ceci corrèle avec l’induction des gènes régulant la production de curli et la répression de la voie de production d’indole et de biosynthèse du flagelle et du PGA (Polymère β-1,6-N-acétyle-D-glucosamine). / EHEC O157:H7 are an emerging zoonotic food- and water-borne hazard highly pathogenic to humans and associated with diseases ranging from acute gastroenteritis to hemolytic uremic syndrome. From their commensal carriage by farm animals to human targets, EHEC pass through a crucial step of persistence in the open environment. Microbial endosymbiosis is one strategy used by pathogenic bacteria to survive in aquatic environments. Amoebae species are free-living protozoa found in diverse environmental habitats and known to host several water-borne pathogens. Thus amoebae could contribute to transmission of EHEC to humans. The first part of my PhD project was focused on interaction of the free-living amoebae Acanthamoeba castellanii with EHEC. The results showed that the presence of amoeba extends the persistence of EHEC that survived phagocytosis by amoebae. This demonstrates the real potential of amoebae to harbourd EHEC that may contribute to their transmission. However, absence of shiga toxins enhanced the intra-amoeba survival. Moreover, EHEC had a toxic and lethal effect on amoebae partially due to shiga toxins. The involvement of shiga toxins in the intracellular survival and mortality of amoebae suggests the value of using amoebae as a model of host/pathogen interactions to study the pathogenicity of EHEC. During their transmission cycle, EHEC encounter limitation inorganic phosphate (Pi) in the environment. Using jointly the PhoB-R two-component system (TCS) and the Pst (Pi specific transport) system, EHEC detect and respond to this Pi limitation by activating the Pho regulon. The interplay between the EHEC virulence, the Pho-Pst and/or the environmental Pi remains unknown. The second part of my project explored the role of Pho regulon (responding to Pi-limitation stress) in the virulence of EHEC. Transcriptomic analysis showed that EHEC has evolved a sophisticated response to Pi deficiency involving not only biochemical strategies that are likely critical to its survival, but also coordinating its virulence response. In these conditions, the regulator PhoB regulates directly the expression of LEE and Stx2 genes. This is confirmed by an increase in EspB secretion and Stx2 production and secretion in low Pi conditions. Moreover, the activation of Pho regulon increases biofilm formation and reduces motility in EHEC. This correlated with the induction of genes regulating curli production and repression of indole production pathway and the flagellum and PGA biosynthesis.

Submitted by JULIE ANNE ESPÍNDOLA AMORIM (julie__anne@hotmail.com) on 2018-06-05T18:33:56Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese_23-03-18-final_corrigida_05-06-2018_Juliecorrigidapdf.pdf: 3073465 bytes, checksum: 1673cd431dca7fe8472ab9ce8185182f (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Alexandra Maria Donadon Lusser Segali null (alexmar@fcav.unesp.br) on 2018-06-05T18:59:54Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 amorim_jae_dr_jabo.pdf: 3073465 bytes, checksum: 1673cd431dca7fe8472ab9ce8185182f (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-06-05T18:59:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 amorim_jae_dr_jabo.pdf: 3073465 bytes, checksum: 1673cd431dca7fe8472ab9ce8185182f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-04-27 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O cancro cítrico tipo A, causado pela bactéria Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (XccA), é uma das doenças de citros mais importantes, afetando todas as cultivares comerciais, para a qual não existem ainda estratégias de controle eficientes. Os genes ntrB e ntrC codificam, respectivamente, a histidina quinase (HK) e o regulador de respostas (RR), pertencentes a um sistema de dois componentes (TCSs), que atuam no sistema regulador de nitrogênio (NTR). Porém, o possível papel desses genes na virulência da XccA e de outros fitopatógenos ainda não foi elucidado. Este estudo teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos dos genes ntrB e ntrC no desenvolvimento do cancro cítrico em limão-cravo (Citrus limonia Osbeck), bem como a possível relação desses genes com a regulação da expressão de genes do sistema de secreção tipo 3 (SST3), considerado um dos principais fatores de virulência da XccA. Os mutantes ΔntrB e ΔntrC foram obtidos pela técnica de mutagênese sítio-dirigida por reação em cadeia da polimerase de extensão por sobreposição. A mutação dos genes causou redução na sintomatologia do cancro cítrico e diminuição da população bacteriana no espaço intercelular do tecido foliar da planta. A análise das curvas de crescimento in vitro revelou que a ausência do gene ntrB não alterou a viabilidade da bactéria, enquanto a mutação do gene ntrC afetou o “fitness” bacteriano em meio de cultura NB. Análises in vitro indicaram que o mutante ΔntrC formou duas vezes mais biofilme e produziu cinco vezes mais goma xantana do que a XccA 306 in vitro. A expressão dos genes (hpa1, hrpG, hrpX, hrpE, hrpW e hrpD6) do SST3 avaliados foi significativamente maior (p < 0,05) no mutante ΔntrC do que na XccA 306 e no ΔntrB, indicando que ntrC possa atuar na regulação do SST3. Porém, o nível de expressão desses genes no mutante ΔntrB não apresentou diferença significativa (p > 0,05) em relação à XccA 306. A modelagem molecular revelou semelhança estrutural entre as regiões receptoras de NtrC e HrpG, sugerindo que a fosforilação de HrpG por NtrB possa ocorrer in vivo. Em síntese, os resultados obtidos neste estudo indicam que a mutação dos genes ntrB e ntrC afeta o desenvolvimento do cancro cítrico em limão-cravo e que o gene ntrC pode atuar na regulação dos mecanismos de formação de biofilme, produção de goma xantana e expressão de genes do SST3 e/ou que a ausência desse gene ocasione um desequilíbrio celular na XccA 306, resultando na alteração desses mecanismos, enquanto NtrB pode apresentar papel na regulação de genes do SST3 por meio da fosforilação de HrpG. / The citrus canker type A, provoked by the bacterium Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (XccA), is one of themost important citrus diseases, affecting all the commercial cultivars, for which there are no effective control strategies. The ntrB and ntrC genes encode a histidine kinase (HK) and the response regulator (RR), respectively, belong to a two-component system (TCSs), related to the nitrogen regulatory system (NTR). However, the possible role of ntrB and ntrC genes in the virulence of XccA and other phytopathogens has not yet been elucidated. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the ntrB and ntrC genes on the development of citrus canker in rangpur lime (Citrus limonia Osbeck), as well as the possible relation of ntrB and ntrC genes with the regulation of the type 3 secretion system (T3SS) gene expression, which is considered one of the main virulence factors of XccA. The ΔntrB and ΔntrC were obtained by site-directed mutagenesis through overlap extension polymerase chain reaction. The mutation of the ntrB and ntrC genes caused a reduction of the citrus canker symptoms, and decrease of the bacterial population in the intracellular space of the foliar tissue of the plant. In vitro growth curves analysis revealed that the ΔntrB did not affect the viability of the bacterium, whereas the ΔntrC affected the bacterial fitness in NB culture medium. In vitro analysis indicated that the ΔntrC formed 2x more biofilm, and produced 5x xanthan gum compared to the XccA 306. The T3SS related genes (hpa1, hrpG, hrpX, hrpE, hrpW and hrpD6) expression was significantly higher (p <0.05) in the ΔntrC than in the XccA 306 and the ΔntrB, indicating that ntrC can modulate the regulation of T3SS. However, the level of expression of these genes in the ΔntrB did not differ (p> 0.05) in relation to the XccA 306. Molecular modeling revealed structural similarity between NtrC and HrpG receptors motifs, suggesting that phosphorylation of HrpG by NtrB may occur in vivo. Overall, the results obtained in this study strongly suggest that the mutation of the ntrB and ntrC genes affect the development of rangpur lime citrus canker and that ntrC gene may play an important role in the regulation of the mechanisms of biofilm formation, xanthan gum production and T3SS gene expression and/or that the absence of this gene causes a cellular imbalance in XccA 306 resulting in the alteration of these mechanism, whereas the NtrB may have a role with the regulation of T3SS genes by phosphorylation of HrpG. / 3385/2013

Les cellules souches pluripotentes induites (iPS) partagent avec les cellules souches embryonnaires la capacité à se différencier en tous les types cellulaires d'un organisme, mais leur obtention ne nécessite pas l'utilisation d'embryons. Elles sont générées par la surexpression de facteurs de transcription embryonnaires au sein de cellules somatiques. Les iPS représentent un outil de choix en biologie fondamentale et appliquée ainsi qu'en médecine régénérative.La plupart des protocoles de génération d'iPS reposent sur un transfert des séquences nucléotidiques codant les facteurs de transcription embryonnaires impliqués dans la mise en place du réseau de pluripotence. Bien qu'efficaces, ces méthodes présentent des problèmes de sécurité majeurs, incompatibles avec une utilisation clinique des iPS générées. La voie la plus rationnelle pour produire des iPS de manière parfaitement sécurisée est d'apporter les facteurs exogènes directement sous leur forme protéique. Des protocoles de reprogrammation par transfert de protéines ont été récemment développés, mais les efficacités associées sont relativement faibles et les protocoles relativement fastidieux.L'objectif de ce projet de thèse était de mettre au point une nouvelle approche de transfert de protéines, sécurisée et simplifiée, pour la génération de cellules souches pluripotentes induites utilisables en clinique. Les cellules à reprogrammer ont été choisies en fonction des applications potentielles des iPS générées : (i) les fibroblastes, faisant référence dans la bibliographie et permettant d'envisager des thérapies autologues avec notamment de nombreuses applications en hématologie ; (ii) les cellules souches hématopoïétiques de sang de cordon, l'un des matériaux biologiques les plus sûrs, afin de générer des globules rouges in vitro, dans la perspective de répondre aux demandes croissantes en terme de transfusion, en particulier pour les groupes sanguins rares.Nous avons donc comparé les différents vecteurs de transduction de protéines développés par l'équipe TheREx du laboratoire TIMC-IMAG, en termes de facilité de production, d'efficacité de transfert ainsi que sur l'activité des facteurs de transcription associés. Le vecteur sélectionné est une micro-seringue naturelle portée par la bactérie Pseudomonas aeruginosa, capable d'injecter les facteurs Oct4, Sox2, Nanog et Lin28 (facteurs de Thomson) mais aussi c-Myc, directement dans le cytoplasme des cellules cibles, sans étape de purification nécessaire. Les facteurs de transcription injectés sont adressés jusqu'au noyau des cellules en moins de 2h, où ils activent rapidement la transcription des gènes de pluripotence, avec des réponses significatives mesurées dès 24h après injection. Nous avons également mis en évidence le caractère sécurisé et contrôlable du vecteur puisque nous sommes capables d'éliminer complètement les bactéries des cultures grâce à un traitement antibiotique, et ce dès quelques heures après l'injection. Des optimisations des conditions de reprogrammation ont été réalisées en modifiant les principaux paramètres que sont, le choix des facteurs de transcription, la fréquence des injections et le ratio bactéries : cellules.Ainsi, bien que nous ne soyons pas parvenus à générer des iPS à ce jour avec ce système, la micro-seringue naturelle que nous avons développé et optimisé se positionne comme un vecteur de choix pour le transfert de protéines dans l'optique de générer des iPS, en termes d'efficacité de vectorisation et d'induction transcriptionnelle, de sécurité mais aussi de facilité d'utilisation. / Like embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) are characterized by their ability to differentiate into any cell type in an organism. However their use doesn't raise the ethical issue linked to the use of embryos. iPS are generated from somatic cells by overexpression of embryonic transcription factors. iPS are thereby very promising in fundamental and applied biology as well as for regenerative medicine.Most of the protocols used to generate iPS are based on the delivery of nucleic acid sequences encoding embryonic transcription factors responsible for the activation of the pluripotency gene network. In spite of their efficiency, these methods are associated with major safety concerns incompatible with clinical applications. The more rational path to safely produce iPS is to deliver the exogenic transcription factors under their protein form. Recently some protocols using protein delivery have been developed to produce iPS. However associated efficiencies are very low and protocols are quite fastidious.The aim of this Ph.D. project was to develop a new efficient and simplified protein delivery method for the safe generation of iPS compatible with clinical applications. Cell sources were selected depending of the final applications of iPS: (i) fibroblasts, extensively used and described in bibliography and allowing autologous therapies with many applications in the field of hematology; (ii) cord blood hematopoietic stem cells, one of the safest biomaterials, with the aim to generate red blood cells in vitro in order to respond to increasing needs for transfusion products, particularly for rare blood types.First, different protein vectors developed by the TheREx team of the TIMC-IMAG laboratory were compared for their efficiency of production and delivery as well as for the activity of associated factors. The selected vector is a natural micro-syringe expressed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, able to inject the transcription factors Oct4, Sox2, Nanog and Lin28a (Thomson combination) with c-Myc directly into the cytoplasm of target cells, without the need for any purification step. Once injected, transcription factors are addressed to the nucleus in less than 2 hours where they efficiently activate transcription of pluripotency genes, with significant responses observed as early as 24h after injection. We also highlighted the secured and controllable nature of this vector by completely eliminating the bacteria from the cultures in a few hours after injection with an antibiotic treatment. Optimizations of the reprogramming conditions were also made by adjusting many parameters such as the combination of transcription factors, the injection frequency and the bacteria : cell ratio.