Stainless steel (SS) is the material of choice in a number of process industries ranging from food and dairy to pharmaceuticals. Adsorption phenomena on SS surfaces are of paramount importance in these industries. For example, protein adsorption constitutes a major issue in process equipment, as the associated surface fouling decreases the efficiency of the overall process and leads to an increase in operational costs because of the need for regular cleaning. In addition, the adsorption of proteins at solid–liquid interfaces is an important research field with relevance in biosensor and biomaterial applications. The primary aim of this thesis was to understand the underlying adsorption properties of selected protein onto SS surfaces and to identify the influence of specific amino acids on bio-fouling. Protein adsorption experiments were carried out on 316 grade SS sensors using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D). The proteins consisted of milk proteins (α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, α-casein, β-casein, κ-casein and bovine serum albumin), blood proteins (cytochrome-c, haemoglobin and myoglobin) and proteins of industrial and medical relevance (α-chymotrypsinogen, human recombinant insulin, lysozyme and papain). The adsorption characteristics of the test proteins were studied and an empirical correlation relating the amount of protein adsorbed to their physical properties was proposed. Adsorption onto a SS surface was followed on the QCM-D in real time and the amounts adsorbed calculated using the Sauerbrey model. In addition, the binding kinetics was modelled using different theoretical models to describe the adsorption mechanism. In all the proteins tested, the conformational change model was found to fit considerably well the adsorption data. Finally, the data collected were used to identify the physical properties of proteins that induce surface binding, with hydrophobic and aromatic amino acids having the most effect on binding. A second aspect investigated in the present work was the determination of hydration water present in the adsorbed layer. In fact, water molecules, solvated ions and other small molecules in the vicinity of the surface all play an important role in protein adsorption and often constitute a large fraction of the total measured adsorbed mass. The fraction of water present on SS surfaces along with adsorbed proteins was determined using fluorescently labelled proteins through a comparative study that included QCM-D experiments as well as fluorescent light intensity measurements. The results were similar for all proteins tested, indicating that 32-45.8% of the total mass adsorbed composed of water. One last aspect considered in this thesis was the influence of the putative adhesive amino acid 3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA). DOPA residues are present in high levels in the adhesive proteins from marine mussels, hence are thought to facilitate surface attachment. The role of DOPA residues in mediating protein adhesion on SS surfaces was studied using QCM-D. Two repetitive peptide motifs extracted from the sequence of the mussel foot protein mefp-5, KGYKYYGGSS and KGYKYY, were selected for this study. The two peptides contained unmodified tyrosine (Y) residues, which were chemo-enzymatically modified to DOPA using mushroom tyrosinase. Adsorption of the two sequences on SS surfaces was tested before and after modification of tyrosine residues to DOPA. Conversion was linearly related to the incubation time of the peptide fragments with mushroom tyrosinase, Amount of DOPA formed was 70-99% of the tyrosine content in the peptides. QCM-D adsorption experiments on the DOPA-modified sequences revealed four-fold greater adhesion than for unmodified mefp-5 motifs, indicating the paramount role that DOPA has on the adsorption of peptides on 316 grade stainless steel.

Le mélanome est un cancer dont l'incidence est toujours en augmentation et dont la mortalité ne faiblit pas, malgré les dispositifs de prévention et de détection précoce. Ce constat peut être principalement imputé au caractère invasif très marqué de cette pathologie, associé à un manque de traitements efficaces face à la maladie disséminée. Le travail présenté dans ce mémoire s'inscrit dans l'initiation d'une stratégie d'adressage tumoral actif de prodrogues, qui s'appuie sur un vecteur ciblant les mélanines (ICF01012) posédant un profil pharmaco-cinétique favorable (fixation tumorale forte, spécifique et durable). Une première génération de quatre prodrogues constituées par un principe actif anticancéreux modèle (l'IUdR) conjugué au vecteur via diverses fonctions espaceurs (ester, acétal, carbonate et carbamate) a été synthétisée et évaluée in vitro sur des critères métabolique et physico-chimique. Les études de biodistribution in vivo après radiomarquage des deux composés les plus pertinents ont démontré une absence de vectorisation, principalement imputable à une métabolisation très rapide des prodrogues conduisant à la perte de l'édifice vecteur. Ainsi, une seconde génération de trois prodrogues variant la nature des espaceurs (chaînes pegylées, pour l'amélioration de ce dernier point et fonction cétal) a été synthétisée. Les résultats biologiques indiquent que l'insertion d'une chaîne pegylée courte augmente la stabilité métabolique par encombrement de la fonction amine tertiaire, conduisant à une faible fixation tumorale. De plus, un espaceur sensible au pH acide constitué par une fonction cétal a été identifié et devrait permettre une libération sélective du principe actif au sein de la tumeur grâce au pH intramélanosomal acide. La libération sélective d'un principe actif par l'action d'une enzyme propre aux mélanosomes, la tyrosinase, a également été abordée par la synthèse de huit "prosondes" constituées par un substrat de l'enzyme (phénol ou catéchol), un espaceur auto-clivable et une sonde permettant d'étudier le mécanisme de libération. Une prosonde vectorisée incluant le vecteur a également été préparée. Des voies d'accès versatiles ont été conçues pour faciliter l'insertion ultérieure de principes actifs. L'aboutissement de cette étude devrait conduire à des prodrogues doublement spécifiques (i.e. distribution tumorale et libération spécifiques) conçues pour le traitement du mélanome métastasé. / Despite prevention campaigns and early detection, incidence and mortality of cutaneous melanoma are still increasing, due to its high invasiveness and the lack of efficient treatments against disseminated disease. This work is the starting point of a melanoma targeted prodrug therapy approach based on a melanin-targeting ligand (ICF01012) which displays an appropriate in vivo kinetic profile (strong, specific and long-lasting tumor uptake). A first generation of four prodrugs with varied spacers (ester, acetal, carbonate and carbamate) was synthesized and evaluated in vitro onphysicochemical and metabolic stability criteria. Two of them were selected and radiolabelled for in vivo evaluation which demonstrated non-specific distribution, mainly because of early metabolism leading to the loss of the targeting moeity. Taking into account these results, a second generation of three prodrugs varying the properties of spacers (pegylated chain for improving this last point and ketal function) was synthesized. Insertion of a short pegylated chain improved the metabolic stability by structural hindering of the tertiary amine fonction and led to a weak tumor uptake. Moreover, the ketal fonction was identified as a pH-sensitive linker able to selectively release the drug into the tumor due to the acidic intramelanosomal pH. The enzymatic drug release by tyrosinase, a specific melanosomal enzyme, was also explored. Eight "pro-probes" including an enzyme substrate moiety (phenol or catechol), a self-immolative spacer and a probe allowing the release mechanism were synthesized. A proprobe which includes the targeting moiety was also developed. During these studies, versatile synthetic pathways were designed for further easy incorporation of drugs. Achievement of this study should lead double specific prodrugs (i.e. specific tumor distribution and release) designed for metastatic melanoma treatment.

Embora exista considerável progresso na área de biossensores, ainda é primordial aprimorar muitos desses dispositivos. Este trabalho tem por objetivo contribuir para o contínuo crescimento dos biossensores a base de enzimas e de moléculas de DNA, sendo dois biossensores eletroquímicos descritos. O primeiro trata-se de um biossensor enzimático utilizando tirosinase (Tyr) imobilizada por intermédio de cistamina (CYS) e glutaraldeído (GA) para a detecção de compostos fenólicos. Eletrodos de carbono impressos (SPCE) foram modificados com nanobastões de ouro (AuNRs) em filme de poli(amido amina) (PAMAM) geração 4 para o favorecimento da transferência direta de elétrons (DET) entre o eletrodo e o sítio ativo da enzima. Para caracterizar os AuNRs e AuNRs-PAMAM, espectroscopia de absorção no UV-Visível, espalhamento de luz dinâmico (DLS) e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM) foram empregadas. As etapas do biossensor foram estudadas por voltametria cíclica e linear, amperometria e microscopia de força atômica (AFM) na presença de dois analitos: catecol (CAT) e dopamina (DA). A faixa linear para CAT foi de 2,8 a 30,3 μmol L-1 com um limite de detecção (LD) de 1,0μmol L-1 enquanto para a DA, a faixa linear foi de 27,8 a 448,7 μmol L-1 e LD de 10,0 μmol L-1. Além de apresentar ótima resposta frente a possíveis interferentes, o sensor também mostrou excelente desempenho em amostras reais, que atrelados aos testes de repetibilidade e reprodutibilidade mostram a estabilidade e acurácia do biossensor. O segundo sensor, trata-se de um sensor de DNA impedimétrico em eletrodo de ouro para a detecção da mutação c.68_69del relacionada à predisposição ao câncer de mama. A imobilização da sequência de captura (SH-ssDNA) no eletrodo ocorreu pela ligação ouro-enxofre (Au-S) e o modelo de hibridização escolhido foi a hibridização direta. O genossensor distinguiu eficientemente entre as sequências alvo (tarDNA) e não-complementar (ncsDNA), apresentando faixa linear de 1,0 a 200,0 nmol L-1 e LD de 0,14 nmol L-1. Os resultados sugerem que ambos biossensores têm potencial e que as estratégias propostas são promissoras para o desenvolvimento de outros biossensores. / Despite a considerable progress in the area of biosensors, it is still crucial to improve most of these sensors. This study aims to contribute to the ongoing growth of enzyme- and DNA-based biosensors, being described two electrochemical biosensors. The first one is an enzyme-based biosensor with immobilized Tyrosinase (Tyr), through cystamine (CYS) and glutaraldehyde (GA), for detection of phenolic compounds. Screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) were modified by gold nanorods (AuNRs) stabilized with poly(amide amine) PAMAM generation 4 to facilitate direct electron transfer (DET) between electrode and enzyme active site. AuNRs and AuNRs-PAMAM were characterized using UV-Visible absorption spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS) e scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Biosensor stages were studied by cyclic and linear voltametry, amperommetry and atomic force microscopy (AFM) and tested agains two analytes: catechol (CAT) and dopamine (DA). Detection limit (LD) for CAT is 1 μmol L-1 and linear range from 2.8 to 30.3 μmol L-1, for DA, LD is 10.0 μmol L-1 and linear range 27.8 to 448.7 μmol L-1. Besides, the biosensor shows great response in the presence of interferents, it also had an excellent performance in real samples that along with repeatability and reproducibility tests indicate stability and accuracy of the biosensor. The second sensor is an impedimetric DNA sensor prepared on gold electrode to detect c.68_69del mutation related to breast cancer predisposition. Capture sequence (HS-ssDNA) immobilization occurred due to gold-sulfur bond (Au-S) and direct hybridization was the chosen hybridization model. The genosensor was able to distinguishing between target sequence (tarDNA) and non-complementary sequence (ncsDNA) and linear range and LD were found to be 1.0 to 200.0 nmol L-1 and 0.14 nmol L-1, respectively. Results suggest both biosensors have potential and proposed strategies are promising for other biosensors development.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) governs many cellular processes through biochemical and mechanical cues. Particularly, the effect ECM mechanical properties on cells fate has been well established over the years. Many hydrogel systems have been used to mimic the dynamic stiffening processes occurring in ECM. However, changes in ECM stiffness does not fully recapitulate the mechanics of native ECM, as viscoelasticity is also a major factor contributing to ECM dynamic property. This thesis describes the design and characterization of an enzyme-crosslinked hydrogel system that is not only capable of being stiffened on demand, but also can be tuned to obtain viscoelasticity. The first objective of this thesis was to utilize horseradish peroxidase (HRP) to crosslink thiol-norbornene hydrogel and use mushroom tyrosinase (MT) to create secondary DOPA-dimer crosslinks that stiffened the hydrogel. The cytocompatibility of HRP-mediated thiol-norbornene gelation and the effect of stiffening on cell fate was evaluated. The second objective of this thesis represented the first step towards developing a hydrogel system whose viscoelasticity could be dynamically tuned. Thiol-norbornene hydrogel was designed to yield dynamically adaptable boronic ester bonds via partial enzymatic reaction. Thiol-norborne hydrogel was made to contain hydroxyl phenol as well as boronic acid residues within its network. MT, in this case was used to oxidize the hydroxy phenol moieties into DOPA, which then complexed with boronic acid, created dynamic bonds, introducing viscoelasticity to an initial elastic hydrogel.

Nesta dissertação, foram estudados os métodos de síntese de filmes poliméricos como matrizes hospedeiras da enzima tirosinase vislumbrando o desenvolvimento de biossensores mais seletivos e duradouros na detecção de compostos fenólicos. Os polímeros utilizados e preparados por cronoamperometria em acetonitrila foram: polipirrol (PPI), polimetiltiofeno (PMET) e copolímero PPI-PMET. Os filmes PPI-PMET apresentaram características intermediárias às dos filmes PPI e PMET, conforme se verificaram em espectros na região do infravermelho (FTIR), voltametria cíclica e microscopia de força atômica (AFM), evidenciando, assim, a formação de uma nova matriz polimérica. O processo de superoxidação do filme PPI-PMET foi estudado visando a uma imobilização mais eficiente da enzima, quando se obteve uma condição na qual a superoxidação ocorre somente nas cadeias de PPI. Biossensores amperométricos foram preparados a partir do uso da tirosinase extraída do abacate como fonte enzimática por imobilização física e realizada de maneiras diferentes em filmes não superoxidados e superoxidados. Foi feita a otimização das respostas dos filmes variando-se o pH, potencial de trabalho, concentração da enzima e tempo de imobilização da enzima para a detecção de catecol. Os resultados indicaram que a superoxidação do PPI nos filmes PPI-PMET favoreceu a imobilização da enzima, embora não fosse tão eficiente quando se comparou aos filmes com o PPI não superoxidado. Contudo, os biossensores, em geral, apresentaram grande sensibilidade ao catecol, com um limite de detecção baixo, da ordem de 0,12 µmol/L. / The synthesis methods of polymer films as host matrices of the enzyme tyrosinase were studied in this dissertation. It was expected the development of selective and everlasting biosensors for the detection of phenolic compounds. The used polymers were prepared by chronoamperometry in acetonitrile as followed: polypyrrole (PPI), polymethylthiophene (PMET) and copolymer PPI-PMET. The PPI-PMET films showed intermediate characteristics as the PPI and PMET films, as observed in the infrared spectra (FTIR), cyclic voltammetry and atomic force microscopy (AFM), thus indicating the formation of a new polymeric matrix . The process of overoxidized of PPI-PMET film was studied in order to achieve a more efficient immobilization of the enzyme, whilst it was achieved a condition in which overoxidized occurs only in the PPI chain. Amperometric biosensors were prepared from the use of tyrosinase extracted from avocado as an enzyme source by physical immobilization and performed in different ways in both overoxidized and non-overoxidized films. It was performed the optimization of the responses of the films by varying pH, operacuonial potential, enzyme concentration and time in the enzyme immobilization for the detection of catechol. The results showed that the overoxidized PPI in the films PPI-PMET favored the immobilization of the enzyme, although not as efficient when compared to the films with nom overoxidized PPI. Neverthless, the catechol biosensors showed a high sensitivity with a low detection limit in the order of 0.12 µmol/L.

Os problemas ambientais relacionados à crescente atividade industrial têm gerado preocupações aos órgãos governamentais e entidades de proteção ambientais, sendo necessários estudos de base que busquem novas alternativas para a recuperação de áreas poluídas e a solução de problemas operacionais relacionados com as técnicas empregadas. Um dos compostos mais encontrados em diversos efluentes industriais, principalmente de indústrias bioquímico-farmacêuticas, é o fenol que provoca um impacto danoso no ambiente devido ao fato de ser um poluente tóxico. O presente trabalho propõe, portanto, avaliar a oxidação e destruição do fenol através da utilização da enzima tirosinase extraída de vegetais, cujos resultados podem ser úteis para o tratamento de outros compostos fenólicos como o hormônio 17β-estradiol ou os que se encontram nos efluentes procedentes da produção de azeite (\"águas de vegetação\") após a recuperação dos polifenóis importantes como antioxidantes. A tirosinase tem a capacidade de transformar fenóis em produtos menos solúveis em água e menos danosos, permitindo assim uma agressão menor ao ambiente. Outro método de remoção do fenol também foi avaliado utilizando queratina extraída de penas de galinha, quitina e quitosana como bioadsorventes. A atividade enzimática foi determinada espectrofotometricamente com soluções de fosfato de potássio e L-tirosina. Para determinar a concentração de fenol aps a oxidação foi utilizada a Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência (HPLC). Para estudar a adsorção do fenol aplicou-se o método colorimétrico a partir das soluções de tampão borato, 4 aminoantipirina e ferricianeto de potássio e as absorbâncias foram lidas em espectrofotômetro UV-Vis a 546nm, enquanto a determinação de polifenis presentes na \"água de vegetação\" foi realizada pelo método Folin-Ciocalteu. A quantidade de tirosinase nas batatas das variedades Ágata e Galette di Bologna apresentou-se muito baixa a ponto de modificarmos a matéria prima para testes em maçã, kiwi, banana e cogumelo, mas apenas o último mostrou uma atividade bastante considerável. Assim, esta matéria-prima foi usada em ensaios a diferentes temperaturas para a estimativa dos parâmetros termodinâmicos durante da oxidação do fenol e da inativação térmica da enzima. As melhores condições da oxidação do fenol com a enzima contida no extrato de cogumelo foram: 30°C, pH 6,6, concentração de enzima 328U/mL e de fenol 100mg/L. A queratina revelou-se o melhor adsorvente para a degradação do fenol tendo mostrado remoção de 98% do mesmo em condições ótimas. / Environmental problems related to growing industrial activity have generated concerns among government entities and environmental protection, being necessary more baseline studies that seek new alternatives for the recovery of polluted areas and solution of problems related to the operational techniques employed. One of the compounds most commonly found in many industrial effluents, mainly from biochemical and pharmaceutical industries, is phenol, which causes a detrimental impact on the environment due to its toxicity. Therefore, this work proposes the oxidation and destruction of phenol using the enzyme tyrosinase, extracted from plants, whose results could be useful in the future for the treatment of other phenolic compounds such as 17β-estradiol hormone or those found in the effluent coming from the production for olive oil (\"vegetation water\") after polyphenols recovery. Such an enzyme has the ability of transforming phenols into products less soluble in water and less dangerous, thereby allowing for a minor impact on the environment. Another method of phenol removal was also evaluated using keratin extracted from chicken feathers, chitin and chitosan as phenol biosorbents. Potassium phosphate buffer and L-tyrosine solutions were used for the determination of enzymatic activity, the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for the determination of phenol concentration after oxidation, and a colorimetric method making use of solutions of borate buffer, 4-aminoantipyrine and potassium ferricyanide as well as reading of the absorbance at 546nm to investigate phenol biosorption, while the presence of polyphenols in \"vegetation water\" was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method. The presence of the tyrosinase in potato varieties Agata and Galette di Bologna was shown to be very low, thus suggesting to change the biosorbent material. So, additional tests were done on apples, kiwi, banana and mushroom, but only the last showed a considerable activity. Therefore, only such a raw material was used in tests at variable temperature to estimate the thermodynamic parameters of both phenol oxidation and thermsal inactivation of the enzyme. The optimum conditions for the phenol oxidation by tyrosinase were: 30°C, pH 6,6, enzyme concentration 328U/mL and of phenol 100mg/L. Keratin was shown to be the best adsorbent, exhibiting under optimum conditions no less than 98% phenol removal.

Os problemas ambientais relacionados à crescente atividade industrial têm gerado preocupações aos órgãos governamentais e entidades de proteção ambientais, sendo necessários estudos de base que busquem novas alternativas para a recuperação de áreas poluídas e a solução de problemas operacionais relacionados com as técnicas empregadas. Um dos compostos mais encontrados em diversos efluentes industriais, principalmente de indústrias bioquímico-farmacêuticas, é o fenol que provoca um impacto danoso no ambiente devido ao fato de ser um poluente tóxico. O presente trabalho propõe, portanto, avaliar a oxidação e destruição do fenol através da utilização da enzima tirosinase extraída de vegetais, cujos resultados podem ser úteis para o tratamento de outros compostos fenólicos como o hormônio 17β-estradiol ou os que se encontram nos efluentes procedentes da produção de azeite (\"águas de vegetação\") após a recuperação dos polifenóis importantes como antioxidantes. A tirosinase tem a capacidade de transformar fenóis em produtos menos solúveis em água e menos danosos, permitindo assim uma agressão menor ao ambiente. Outro método de remoção do fenol também foi avaliado utilizando queratina extraída de penas de galinha, quitina e quitosana como bioadsorventes. A atividade enzimática foi determinada espectrofotometricamente com soluções de fosfato de potássio e L-tirosina. Para determinar a concentração de fenol aps a oxidação foi utilizada a Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência (HPLC). Para estudar a adsorção do fenol aplicou-se o método colorimétrico a partir das soluções de tampão borato, 4 aminoantipirina e ferricianeto de potássio e as absorbâncias foram lidas em espectrofotômetro UV-Vis a 546nm, enquanto a determinação de polifenis presentes na \"água de vegetação\" foi realizada pelo método Folin-Ciocalteu. A quantidade de tirosinase nas batatas das variedades Ágata e Galette di Bologna apresentou-se muito baixa a ponto de modificarmos a matéria prima para testes em maçã, kiwi, banana e cogumelo, mas apenas o último mostrou uma atividade bastante considerável. Assim, esta matéria-prima foi usada em ensaios a diferentes temperaturas para a estimativa dos parâmetros termodinâmicos durante da oxidação do fenol e da inativação térmica da enzima. As melhores condições da oxidação do fenol com a enzima contida no extrato de cogumelo foram: 30°C, pH 6,6, concentração de enzima 328U/mL e de fenol 100mg/L. A queratina revelou-se o melhor adsorvente para a degradação do fenol tendo mostrado remoção de 98% do mesmo em condições ótimas. / Environmental problems related to growing industrial activity have generated concerns among government entities and environmental protection, being necessary more baseline studies that seek new alternatives for the recovery of polluted areas and solution of problems related to the operational techniques employed. One of the compounds most commonly found in many industrial effluents, mainly from biochemical and pharmaceutical industries, is phenol, which causes a detrimental impact on the environment due to its toxicity. Therefore, this work proposes the oxidation and destruction of phenol using the enzyme tyrosinase, extracted from plants, whose results could be useful in the future for the treatment of other phenolic compounds such as 17β-estradiol hormone or those found in the effluent coming from the production for olive oil (\"vegetation water\") after polyphenols recovery. Such an enzyme has the ability of transforming phenols into products less soluble in water and less dangerous, thereby allowing for a minor impact on the environment. Another method of phenol removal was also evaluated using keratin extracted from chicken feathers, chitin and chitosan as phenol biosorbents. Potassium phosphate buffer and L-tyrosine solutions were used for the determination of enzymatic activity, the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for the determination of phenol concentration after oxidation, and a colorimetric method making use of solutions of borate buffer, 4-aminoantipyrine and potassium ferricyanide as well as reading of the absorbance at 546nm to investigate phenol biosorption, while the presence of polyphenols in \"vegetation water\" was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method. The presence of the tyrosinase in potato varieties Agata and Galette di Bologna was shown to be very low, thus suggesting to change the biosorbent material. So, additional tests were done on apples, kiwi, banana and mushroom, but only the last showed a considerable activity. Therefore, only such a raw material was used in tests at variable temperature to estimate the thermodynamic parameters of both phenol oxidation and thermsal inactivation of the enzyme. The optimum conditions for the phenol oxidation by tyrosinase were: 30°C, pH 6,6, enzyme concentration 328U/mL and of phenol 100mg/L. Keratin was shown to be the best adsorbent, exhibiting under optimum conditions no less than 98% phenol removal.

Compostos de cobre(II) dinucleares, contendo ligantes nitrogenados, foram preparados, caracterizados por diversas técnicas espectroscópicas (UV/Vis, IV e EPR) e tiveram sua reatividade frente a células melanomas (B16F10 e TM1) verificada. Estes compostos são miméticos da tirosinase, enzima contendo em seu sítio ativo dois íons de cobre, presente em bactérias, plantas, animais e humanos, sendo responsável pela oxidação de fenóis a catecóis e destes às correspondentes quinonas. São enzimas relacionadas também à melanogênese, isto é, síntese de melanina, com formação de polímeros eumelanina e feomelanina, responsáveis pela pigmentação de nossa pele, olhos e cabelos. Os compostos mononucleares correspondentes foram também preparados e estudados, para efeito de comparação. Os resultados indicaram que os complexos dinucleares são mais ativos, tanto como miméticos da tirosinase, quanto em relação à citotoxicidade frente a melanomas, que os análogos mononucleares, mostrando que a estrutura é um fator determinante de ambas as atividades biológicas aqui estudadas. Ensaios de interação com as biomoléculas DNA e albumina humana (HSA) através de espectroscopia de UV/Vis e dicroísmo circular (CD) respectivamente, também foram realizados e complementaram os estudos. Atividade nuclease significativa foi observada para os complexos dinucleares, em presença de peróxido de hidrogênio, através de ensaios de clivagem em gel de agarose, buscando uma possível elucidação dos mecanismos de ação dos complexos em estudo. / Dinuclear copper(II) complexes with nitrogenated ligands were prepared, characterized by spectroscopic techniques (UV/Vis, IR and EPR) and had their reactivity verified towards melanoma cells (B16F10 and TM1). These compounds are tyrosinase mimics, an enzyme present in bacteria, fungi, animals and humans, capable of catalyzing the oxidation of phenols to catechols, and catechols to the corresponding quinines, and containing two copper ions in its active site. Tyrosinases are also enzymes related to melanogenesis, assisting the formation of eumelanin and pheomelanin polymers, responsible for the colour of our eyes, skin and hair. The corresponding mononuclear copper(II) complexes were also prepared and comparative studies were performed. The results indicated that the dinuclear species are more reactive than the mononuclear ones, both as tyrosinase mimics as in cytotoxicity damage to melanoma cells, showing that the structure of such species is a determining factor of both biological activities. Experiments at the interactions of these complexes with the biomolecule DNA and human serum albumim, were also conducted by UV/Vis and circular dichroism spectroscopies, respectively, and complemented the previous studies. Nuclease activity was also assessed, in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, monitored by cleavage assays in agarose gel, in order to contribute to the elucidation of the mechanisms of action of these complexes

Uma série de três complexos de cobre(II) dinucleares, contendo ligantes nitrogenados e grupos aromáticos (compostos 2, 4 e 6), foi sintetizada e caracterizada por diversas técnicas espectroscópicas (UV/Vis, IV e EPR). Esses compostos tiveram sua atividade tirosinase avaliada à temperatura ambiente, através da oxidação de L-di-hidroxifenilalanina (L-dopa), e sua citotoxicidade investigada frente a células melanomas, comparada às de complexos análogos de cobre(II) mononucleares (compostos 1, 3 e 5). A influência da luz UVB, que estimula a melanogênese, também foi verificada. A exposição das células à radiação de intensidade (13 ± 2) mJ/cm2 aumentou os danos causados, principalmente em presença das espécies dinucleares. A citotoxicidade dos diferentes complexos foi determinada frente a duas linhagens de melanomas humanos (SKMEL-05 e SKMEL-147), após 24 e 48h de incubação. Células com maior teor de melanina foram mais sensíveis aos efeitos dos complexos. Verificou-se um aumento na porcentagem de células na fase sub-G1 do ciclo celular após tratamento por 24 ou 48h com estes complexos, ao contrário do verificado frente a queratinócitos não tumorais. Testes clonogênicos também indicaram maior atividade do composto (2) contendo dois centros de cobre em sua estrutura, com diminuição significativa no número de células sobreviventes após tratamento. Ensaios complementares mostraram a redução dos íons de cobre(II) nos compostos (1) e (2) em presença de melanina e a formação de espécies reativas de oxigênio (radicais hidroxil e ânions superóxido), através de espectroscopia EPR ou do uso de sondas fluorescentes. Adicionalmente, foi constatado um aumento no nível de vacúolos citoplasmáticos após tratamento com o complexo (2), indicando indução à autofagia, corroborada pelo monitoramento das proteínas LC3 e tubulina, implicadas neste processo de morte celular. Os resultados apontam para a ocorrência de pelo menos dois mecanismos de ação dos complexos frente aos melanomas, por processo apoptótico e autofágico. Indicam ainda que esta reatividade frente a melanomas é fortemente dependente da estrutura dos complexos de cobre, sendo mais significativa para os dinucleares / A series of dinuclear copper(II) complexes containing nitrogen ligands and aromatic groups (compounds 2, 4 and 6), were synthesized and characterized by various spectroscopic methods (UV/Vis, IR and EPR). These complexes had their tyrosinase activity evaluated at room temperature, through the oxidation of L-di-hidroxyphenylalanine (L-dopa), and its cytotoxicity toward melanoma cells investigated, in comparison with the toxicity of the corresponding mononuclear complexes (compounds 1, 3 and 5). The influence of UVB light, that stimulates melanogenesis, was also verified. The exposition of the cells to radiation of intensity (13 ± 2) mJ/cm2, increased the caused damage, especially in the presence of dinuclear species. The cytotoxicity of the different complexes was determined toward two cell lines of human melanomas (SKMEL-05 e SKMEL-147), after 24 and 48h incubation. Cells containing higher leveis of melanin were more sensitive to the effects of the complexes. An increasing in the percentage of cells in the sub-G1 phase of cellular cycle was verified after treatment for 24 or 48h with these complexes. On the contrary, this effect was not observed with non-tumor keratinocytes. Clonogenic tests also indicated higher activity of compound 2 containing two copper centers in its structure, with a significant decrease in the number of survival cells after the treatment. Complementary assays show the reduction of copper(II) ions in complexes (1) and (2), in the presence of melanin, as well as the formation of reactive oxygen species (hydroxyl radicais and superoxide anions) via EPR spectroscopy or the use of fluorescent labels. Further, an increase in the levei of cytoplasmatic vacuoles was verified after treatment with complex (2), indicating induction to autophagy, which was corroborated by monitoring the proteins LC3 and tubulin, implicated in this process of cell death. The results pointed to the occurrence of at least two mechanisms of action of these complexes toward melanomas, apoptotic and autophagic processes. Also, they indicated that the reactivity of the studied compounds is strongly dependent on its structural features, being more remarkable to the dinuclear ones.

Compostos de cobre(II) dinucleares, contendo ligantes nitrogenados, foram preparados, caracterizados por diversas técnicas espectroscópicas (UV/Vis, IV e EPR) e tiveram sua reatividade frente a células melanomas (B16F10 e TM1) verificada. Estes compostos são miméticos da tirosinase, enzima contendo em seu sítio ativo dois íons de cobre, presente em bactérias, plantas, animais e humanos, sendo responsável pela oxidação de fenóis a catecóis e destes às correspondentes quinonas. São enzimas relacionadas também à melanogênese, isto é, síntese de melanina, com formação de polímeros eumelanina e feomelanina, responsáveis pela pigmentação de nossa pele, olhos e cabelos. Os compostos mononucleares correspondentes foram também preparados e estudados, para efeito de comparação. Os resultados indicaram que os complexos dinucleares são mais ativos, tanto como miméticos da tirosinase, quanto em relação à citotoxicidade frente a melanomas, que os análogos mononucleares, mostrando que a estrutura é um fator determinante de ambas as atividades biológicas aqui estudadas. Ensaios de interação com as biomoléculas DNA e albumina humana (HSA) através de espectroscopia de UV/Vis e dicroísmo circular (CD) respectivamente, também foram realizados e complementaram os estudos. Atividade nuclease significativa foi observada para os complexos dinucleares, em presença de peróxido de hidrogênio, através de ensaios de clivagem em gel de agarose, buscando uma possível elucidação dos mecanismos de ação dos complexos em estudo. / Dinuclear copper(II) complexes with nitrogenated ligands were prepared, characterized by spectroscopic techniques (UV/Vis, IR and EPR) and had their reactivity verified towards melanoma cells (B16F10 and TM1). These compounds are tyrosinase mimics, an enzyme present in bacteria, fungi, animals and humans, capable of catalyzing the oxidation of phenols to catechols, and catechols to the corresponding quinines, and containing two copper ions in its active site. Tyrosinases are also enzymes related to melanogenesis, assisting the formation of eumelanin and pheomelanin polymers, responsible for the colour of our eyes, skin and hair. The corresponding mononuclear copper(II) complexes were also prepared and comparative studies were performed. The results indicated that the dinuclear species are more reactive than the mononuclear ones, both as tyrosinase mimics as in cytotoxicity damage to melanoma cells, showing that the structure of such species is a determining factor of both biological activities. Experiments at the interactions of these complexes with the biomolecule DNA and human serum albumim, were also conducted by UV/Vis and circular dichroism spectroscopies, respectively, and complemented the previous studies. Nuclease activity was also assessed, in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, monitored by cleavage assays in agarose gel, in order to contribute to the elucidation of the mechanisms of action of these complexes