The physical supply chain relies on three components to transport products: the pallet, the package, and unit load stabilizers. The interactions between these three components can be investigated to understand the relationship between them to find potential optimization strategies. The relationship between corrugated boxes and pallets have been previously investigated and have found that the relationship can be used to reduce the quantity of material used in unit loads and can also reduce the cost per unit load if the package and pallet are designed using a systems approach. Although corrugated boxes are a common form of packaging, plastic pails are also used in packaging for liquids and powders, but they have not been previously investigated. To understand the interactions between the wooden pallet and plastic pails, physical tests were conducted and then used to create and validate a finite element model. The experiments were carried out in three phases. The first phase included physical testing of plastic pails where the deckboard gap and overhang support conditions would be isolated by using a rigid deckboard scenario. The second phase also used physical tests to investigate plastic pails but instead used flexible deckboards and used an overhang support condition and a 3.5 in. gap support condition. The third phase of experiments would develop and validate a finite element model to further understand the impact of deckboard gaps and overhang depending on the location of the gap. Previous physical experiments were used to create and validate the finite element model. Nonlinear eigen buckling analysis was used to model the plastic pail buckling failure that was seen in physical testing. The model based on the physical experiments was able to predict the behavior of the plastic pail within a range of 5-12% variation with higher variation being introduced when the flexible deckboard is introduced. The finite element model was then used to model a range of deckboard gap sizes and overhang sizes as well as different locations for deckboard gaps. The results of the experiments indicate that the percent of pail perimeter that is supported directly on the pallet impacts the compression strength of the plastic pail. Decreasing the quantity of support decreases the compression strength of the plastic pail in a linear pattern. The location of the deckboard gap also influenced the compression strength because of the quantity of pail being supported being altered. The results of the experiments can be used by industry members to provide guidelines on unit load design to prevent plastic pail failure. Industry members can also use the results as a baseline investigation and further the finite element model by incorporating their own plastic pail design. / Doctor of Philosophy / The physical movement of products relies on three main elements: pallets, packaging, and stabilizers for unit loads. Examining how these components interact helps uncover their relationships and potential strategies for optimization. Previous studies have explored the connection between corrugated boxes and pallets, revealing ways to reduce material usage and costs through a systems-based design approach. While corrugated boxes are commonly studied, plastic pails, used for liquids and powders, have not received similar attention. To understand the dynamics between wooden pallets and plastic pails, physical tests were conducted. The physical experiments illustrated the importance of investigating the relationship within unit loads but there are limitations that exist when doing physical experimentation such as time and materials. A finite element model is a mathematical model that can be used to simulate physical phenomenon to further understand physical interactions without having to conduct physical experiments. Using the results of the physical experiments that were conducted, a finite element model was developed to further investigate the system that exists between pails and pallets. The experiments occurred in three phases. The first phase focused on isolating deckboard gap and overhang support conditions using a rigid deckboard scenario in plastic pail testing. In the second phase, a pallet with flexible deckboards was used to explore overhang and a 3.5-in. gap support condition. The third phase involved creating and validating a finite element model to better grasp the impact of deckboard gaps and overhang, considering gap location. Previous physical experiments guided the model's development and validation. Nonlinear eigen buckling analysis simulated plastic pail buckling failure observed in physical tests. The model predicted plastic pail behavior within a 5-12% variation range, with greater variation when using flexible deckboards. This model explored various deckboard gap and overhang sizes, along with different gap location and found that the quantity of unsupported perimeter that the pail experiences affects the quantity of load that the pail can experience before achieving failure. These results are impactful to industry members because it quantifies the impact that pallets can have on their package. Understanding the interactions between the package and the pallet can also be used to create unit loads that are safer by quantifying the buckling load of plastic pails. Investigating plastic pails and the interactions between pallet components can lead to creating safer and better design unit loads in the industry.

The purpose of this research was to correlate the applied material properties of stretch film with its elastic properties measured in a laboratory setting. There are currently no tools available for a packaging engineer to make a scientific decision on how one stretch film performs against another without applying the film. The system for stretch wrap comparison is mostly based on trial and error which can lead to a significant loss of product when testing a new film or shipping a new product for the first time. If the properties of applied stretch film could be predicted using a tensile test method, many different films could be compared at once without actually applying the film, saving time and money and reducing risk. The current method for evaluating the tensile properties of stretch film advises the user apply a hysteresis test to a standard sample size and calculate several standard engineering values. This test does not represent how the material is actually used. Therefore, a new tensile testing method was developed that considers the film gauge (thickness) and its prestretch. The results of this testing method allowed for the calculation of the material stiffness (Bisha Stiffness) and were used to predict its performance in unit load containment. Applied stretch film is currently compared measuring containment force, which current standards define as the amount of force required to pull out a 15.2cm diameter plate, 10.1cm out, located 25.4cm down from the top and 45.7cm over from the side of a standard 121.9cm width unit load. Given this definition, increasing the amount of force required to pull the plate out can be achieved by manipulating two different stretch film properties, either increasing the stiffness of the film or increasing the tension of the film across the face of the unit load during the application process. Therefore, for this research, the traditional definition of containment force has been broken down into two components. Applied film stiffness was defined as the amount of force required to pull the film a given distance off the unit load. Containment force was defined as the amount of force that an applied film exerts on the corner of the unit load. The applied stretch film was evaluated using two different methods. The first method used the standard 10.1cm pull plate (same plate as ASTM D 4649) to measure the force required to pull the film out at different increments from the center on the face of the unit load. This measurement force was transformed into a material stiffness and film tension (which were subsequently resolved into containment force). The second, newly developed, method involved wrapping a bar under the film, on the corner of the unit load, and pulling out on the bar with a tensile testing machine. This method allowed for the direct measurement of the containment force and material stiffness. The results indicated that while some statistically significant differences were found for certain films, the material stiffness and containment were relatively consistent and comparable using either method.The use of the Bisha Stiffness to predict the applied stiffness and containment force yielded a statistically significant correlation but with a very low coefficient of determination. These results suggest that while film thickness and prestretch are key variables that can predict applied stiffness and containment force, more research should be conducted to study other variables that may allow for a better. High variability of the predictions observed were caused by the differences in film morphology between the different method of elongation (tensile vs application). This study was the first that attempted to define and correlate the tensile properties of stretch film and the applied properties of stretch film. From this research many, terms have been clarified, myths have been dispelled, formulas have been properly derived and applied to the data collected and a clear path forward had been laid out for future researchers to be able to predict applied stiffness and containment force from the elastic properties of stretch film. / Ph. D.

In the supply chain there are three components: transportation method, the pallet, and the packaging. Traditionally, there has been a poor understanding of the way that pallet design can impact the supply chain. There are historical studies that illustrate the importance of investigating how box stacking pattern, unit load type, unit load size, and containment can impact the pallet's performance. However, there have been no studies that have investigated the impact of drums and plastic pails on pallet performance. The goal of the current research study was to investigate how plastic pails and drums affect pallet bending and the distribution of the pressure on the top surface of the pallet. The investigation was conducted using four different support conditions commonly found in warehouses: racking across the width and length, single stacking, and double stacking. The results of the investigation indicated that for most support conditions, loading the pallet with plastic pails or drums results in a significant reduction in deflection when compared to a uniformly distributed load. The maximum observed reduction in pallet deflection was 85% when testing with drums in the double stack condition and 89% when testing with plastic pails in the single stack condition. The large reductions in deflection could indicate that the pallets were over-designed for the unit load that they were supporting. Pressure mat distribution images collected during the experiment display a load bridging effect where the stress of the drums and pails are redistributed to the supported sides of the pallet. The data also show that drums made of different materials distribute the pressure onto the pallet in a significantly different manner. / Master of Science / Wood pallets are crucial to the supply chain that delivers the goods and objects that sustain our economy. Every product order or product that is seen in stores was sent through the supply chain. The supply chain is made up of three major interacting components, the material handling system, the packaging, and the pallet. By further understanding the interaction between these components, pallet and packaging designers can better utilize materials and maximize the efficiency of the supply chain. There is a need to understand how different types of packages interact with the pallet to effectively design pallets and to potentially reduce costs and material usage. Historical studies focused on investigating how corrugated boxes affect pallet performance. They mainly focused on the effect of corrugated box size, flute type, stretch wrapping and containment, and the influences that pallet design have on pallet performance. Past studies identified that packages on the top of the pallet could create a bridging between the packages that can reduce the stresses on the pallet and consequently increase its load capacity. By using this load bridging effect for their advantage, pallet designers can design pallets that are safer, cheaper, and be more environmentally friendly since current wood pallets are designed under the assumption of a uniformly distributed, rather than bridged, load. The goal of the current study was to investigate how the load bridging effect created by pails and drum affects the deflection of the pallet in the floor stacked loading condition. The investigation was conducted using four different support conditions commonly found in warehouses such as racking across the length, racking across the width, single stacking, and double stacking. The results of the investigation indicated that for most investigated support conditions, the interaction between pails and drums causes an increase in load bridging which significantly reduces the bending of the pallet. The reductions reached a maximum of 85% when testing with drums in the double stack condition and 89% when testing with plastic pails in the single stack condition. The large reductions in deflection could indicate that the pallets were over-designed for the unit load that they were supporting.

Sustainability is one of the most critical issues in today's packaging and supply chain industries. With the increase of environmental concerns, there has been a tremendous effort to improve packaging sustainability. However, most of these works have focused on individual packaging components rather than an integrated unit load. In global supply chains, three levels of packaging components (primary, secondary, and tertiary) are commonly assembled in the unit load form to facilitate efficient and economical storage and transport of goods to customers. Unit loads is important to improved, packaging sustainability. This study developed the fundamental information that facilitates understanding and enhanced sustainability of unit loads from two different perspectives: physical interactions and end-of-life options of unit load components. From the physical interaction perspective, the effects of various characteristics of secondary and tertiary packaging components on load-bridging within unit loads are investigated.. Packaging component characteristics investigated included the flute type and size of corrugated paperboard boxes, stretch wrap containment force, and pallet stiffness. From the end-of-life option perspective, process methods and environmental impacts of wood pallet repair in the United States are analyzed to provide fundamental information for accurate life cycle assessment of pallets. The experimental results of this study demonstrate that the size of corrugated paperboard boxes and stretch wrap containment force significantly affected the bridging of loads on pallets. The results regarding load-bridging, verified in this study, provides essential knowledge regarding factors influencing unit load deflection. Pallet design procedure should include the load-bridging effect. For simulated pallets which was comparable to a stringer class wood pallet spanning the width of a storage rack, average deflection in the unit load decreased by 70% when package size increased to 20 in. x 10 in. x 10 in. from 5 in. x 10 in. x 10 in. In addition, average deflection in the unit load consisting of 5 in. x 10 in. x 10 in. packages decreased by 50% when stretch wrap containment force increased to 30 lbs. from zero pounds. Updated design methods that consider the effect of packaging characteristics on unit load deflection can help to reduce the amount of raw materials required to build pallets using current pallet design methodologies. The life cycle inventory analysis results of this study determined that pallet repair is an environmentally beneficial end-of-life option for 48 by 40- inch stringer class wood pallets in terms of greenhouse gas generation. Most wood pallet repair firms in the United States utilized high levels of manual labor with non-automated machinery support. The life cycle inventory results from this study can be a useful resource for researchers as an input to the life cycle assessment. / Ph. D.

Packaging sustainability has become one of the most notable issues of this era. Many researchers have endeavored to characterize or compare the environmental burdens of a single level of packaging, such as primary, secondary, or tertiary packaging. However, goods are often handled, stored, and transported through the supply chain system in unit load form consisting of pallets, corrugated boxes, and load stabilizers. Hence, it is important to holistically understand the environmental impact of not only individual packaging levels, but also the unit load form. We can use the interactions between the unit load components to reduce the environmental burdens generated in the supply chain system. Past studies discovered that pallet top deck thickness has a huge effect on corrugated box compression strength. Using this knowledge, researchers were able to optimize the cost of unit loads by increasing pallet top deck thickness and reducing the board grade of corrugated boxes. This study (1) further discovered how different unit load design factors, such as initial top deck thickness, pallet wood species, box size, and board grade, affect the performance of the previously proposed unit load design optimization method, and (2) we investigated if the unit load optimization method could also enhance unit load sustainability. The study's first phase identified that the benefits of increasing top deck thickness were more pronounced as the initial top deck thickness decreased, higher board grade boxes were initially utilized, and smaller-sized boxes were used. The second phase of this study showed that increasing top deck thickness and reducing the board grade of corrugated boxes could offset environmental impacts by as much as 23%. Environmental benefits were mostly achieved by reducing the amount of relatively more-processed materials in the corrugated boards. This phase also provided preliminary unit load conditions as guidance for unit load professionals to estimate the possibility of optimizing their unit load design in an environmentally beneficial way. / Master of Science / Sustainability-minded individuals, industries, and policymakers recently recognized the environmental burdens associated with packaging as a critical concern to society. Many initiatives and studies have been conducted to prevent and reduce the environmental impacts of individual packaging systems, such as corrugated boxes, plastic bottles, and pallets. However, not many efforts have been made to enhance the environmental performance of a whole unit load, which is the most common distribution packaging form used to transport and store goods. It is essential to understand the physical interactions between unit load components, such as corrugated boxes and pallets, in order to improve a unit load's environmental performance effectively. The unit load optimization concept introduced in the past study, which showed that increasing top deck thickness can reduce the needed board grade of corrugated boxes, was further investigated and utilized in this study to offset the environmental burdens of a unit load by substituting different materials used. To assess the environmental performance of that unit load design optimization method, this study first endeavored to understand further how various unit load design factors could affect the result of unit load optimization, and second, we analyzed many different scenarios using a life cycle analysis method. The study found that the unit load design method that uses deck board thickness to change the amount of corrugated board needed had more potential for lighter pallets with thinner deck boards carrying heavier loads. The results also showed that increasing top deck board thickness and reducing the board grade of the corrugated board could improve the environmental performance of a unit load when the corrugated material is sufficiently substituted with a reasonable amount of pallet material.

During unitized shipment, the components of unit loads are interacting with each other. During floor stacking of unit loads, the load on the top of the pallet causes the top deck of the pallet to bend which creates an uneven top deck surface resulting in uneven, or asymmetrical support of the corrugated boxes. This asymmetrical support could significantly affect the strength of the corrugated boxes, and it depends on the top deck stiffness of the pallet. This study is aimed at investigating how the variations of pallet top deck stiffness and the resulting asymmetric support, affects corrugated box compression strength. Pallet top deck stiffness was determined to have a significant effect on box compression strength. There was a 27-37% increase in box compression strength for boxes supported by high stiffness pallets in comparison to low stiffness pallets. The fact that boxes were weaker on low stiffness pallets could be explained by the uneven pressure distribution between the pallet deck and bottom layer of boxes. Pressure data showed that a higher percentage of total pressure was located under the box sidewalls that were supported on the outside stringers of low stiffness pallets in comparison to high stiffness pallets. This was disproportionately loading one side of the box. Utilizing the effects of pallet top deck stiffness on box compression performance, a unit load cost analysis is presented showing that a stiffer pallet can be used to carry boxes with less board material; hence, it can reduce the total unit load packaging cost. / Master of Science / Packaged products are primarily shipped as unit loads that consist of packaged products restrained to a platform, commonly a pallet. Paying particular attention to the design of the unit loads' components is necessary to safely ship products while still maintaining low packaging costs and sustainability initiatives. Stacking unit loads is a common practice to effectively use warehouse space, but warehouse stacking causes large amounts of weight for packaging to support. Pallets are not completely rigid and will deform because of this weight. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of pallet stiffness on the compression strength of corrugated boxes. Compression tests were completed on boxes supported by pallet designs having different deck stiffnesses. The top deck stiffness of a pallet was determined to have up to a 37% effect on the strength of corrugated boxes. Pressure data recorded between the bottom layer of boxes and the top deck of the pallet showed a larger percentage of pressure was located towards the outside edges of the unit load for boxes carried by a flexible pallet. Effectively, one side of the box was stressed more than the other causing package failure. Utilizing the effects of pallet top deck stiffness on box compression performance, a unit load cost analysis is presented showing that a stiffer pallet can be used to carry boxes with less board material; hence, it can reduce the total unit load packaging cost.

Detta examensarbete genomfördes våren 2013 på Karlstads universitet där TD Rail & Industry i Västerås stod som uppdragsgivare. Projektet innefattade att kartlägga nuvarande omlastningslösningar av enhetslaster mellan järnvägstransporter och vägtransporter, och utarbeta en konceptuell omlastningslösning med fokus på att öka järnvägstransporternas flexibilitet gentemot vägtransporterna. Där vikten lades på att utarbeta ett välarbetat helhetskoncept. Projektet genomfördes med designprocessen som grund och innehöll bland annat momenten; förstudie, kravspecificering, idégenerering, konceptval m.m. Resultatet blev en vidareutveckling av det redan befintliga systemet CCT som bygger på horisontell överföringsteknik och möjliggör därför omlastning av enhetslaster direkt under kontaktledning. Skillnaden mellan RES och CCT är att man tagit bort ombyggnationen av tågvagn och lastbilschassi, som var en av CCTs stora svagheter, genom två hydrauliska ”teknikplattor”. Tack vare detta tillsammans med sin låga investeringskostnad/driftkostnad öppnar RES nya möjligheter för omlastning på fler strategiska punkter direkt utmed järnvägsnätet och därmed ökar järnvägstransporternas flexibilitet. Som vidareutveckling av RES föreslås ett samarbete med CCT där man initialt utför mer detaljerade beräkningar på teknikplattorna. / This Bachelor of Science thesis was carried out in spring 2013 at Karlstad University for a company called TD Rail and Industry placed in Västerås, Sweden. The project included mapping of current transferring solutions of unit loads between railway and road transports, and the development of a conceptual transferring solution with the focus to increase the flexibility of the railway transport. The importance was to develop a well-made overall concept rather than small detailed parts of it. The project followed the design process methodology and included parts like: pre-study, requirements specification, idea generation, concept selection etc.The result was a further development of an already existing system called CCT based on horizontal transferring technology and therefore allow transferring of units directly under the overhead contact line. Thanks to this, together with its low investment / operating costs RES opens new opportunities for additional strategic transferring places along the railway, thereby increasing the flexibility of rail transports. The difference between RES and CCT is that you no longer need to rebuild the railway cars or the truckchassis , which was one of CCTs major weaknesses, instead the lifting mechanism is replaced by two hydraulic "technique plates". As a further development of the RES a partnership with CCT is proposed.

Master’s thesis theme is mountain hotel project. The hotel has one lower basement and four aboveground floor. It has trditional look and the roof is double-pitched. Floor projection looks like letter "L". Main part has measurements 25,3 x 14,1 m and it has four floor. Extension is on northwest side of main part. It has measuremnts 11,85 x 9,5 m and three floor. Facede of basement and first floor is from stone facing mansory. Facade od second floor of main patr of buildings id timbered looks like curb. Third and fourth floor are attic, gable is vertical timbered. Facade of second floor of extension is plaster on ETICS. The gable od extension is vertical timbered. Roof covering is alpen shingle from larch wood. Foundations of house are shallow. The construction system is walled. The lower basement is built from masonry BS Klatovy BD30 and other wall are from masonry Porotherm . Floor structures are from monolithic reinforced concrete, thickness 220 mm. House stairs are prefabricated double-flight. Partition wall are mostly built from mansory Porotherm 11,5 P+D. Lintols above windows and doors in facadeare made by reverse of floor slab and inside of disposition are made by ceramics lintols Porotherm. Floor structures are floating with impact insulation in whole house. In living rooms wear layers are from oak parquet block and in common rooms, toilets, bathrooms and technical rooms is ceramics paving. Wall’s surfaces are made from patent plaster and in lower basement are made from two-coat work with white coat. Toilets and bathrooms are tilled with ceramic tiles. All distributions of building equipment are covered with gypsum plasterboard ceiling. All windows and doors in facade are made by wooden profile Solid comfort SC78 and glazed by triple glazing unit (Uw,max=0,9 W/m2.K), exception is main entrance door, It is made by aluminum profile and it is automatically opened.