As urban land expands across the globe and impervious surfaces continue to be used for constructing urban infrastructure, stormwater treatment costs and environmental damage from untreated stormwater will rise. Well designed urban landscapes can employ trees and soils to reduce stormwater runoff flowing to streams and treatment facilities. Typical urban soil, however, is compacted and restricts tree growth via high soil strength and inadequate gas exchange. A site preparation method that deeply incorporates compost and includes trees for long term carbon input and pore development was evaluated in the urban setting of Arlington, Virginia. Three species were used in that study of 25 streetside plantings. The site preparation affected soil at 15 30 cm by lowering soil bulk density by 13.3%, and increasing macro-aggregate-associated carbon by 151% compared to control plots, and resulted in 77% greater tree growth during the first year after transplant. In a second experiment, rainfall simulations were used to evaluate common landscape mulch materials for their ability to prevent compaction from traffic as well their affect on surface runoff before and after traffic. When plots were subjected to heavy rainfall, (>97 mm/h) mulches were found to reduce sediment loss 82% and 73% before and after traffic, respectively. Runoff rates from wood chips were only 0.19 ml/s faster after traffic while rates from bare soil and marble gravel with geotextile increased 2.28 and 2.56 ml/s, respectively. Management of soils, trees and landscapes for stormwater benefit could reduce cost of wastewater treatment for municipalities and can prevent environmental degradation. / Master of Science

Tendo em vista a importância de se obter um desenho urbano baseado no microclima e a possibilidade da utilização da vegetação arbórea como um elemento determinante na mitigação do desconforto urbano, este trabalho avaliou o efeito provocado por três diferentes arranjos espaciais de floresta urbana e do uso e ocupação do solo sobre a temperatura e umidade do entorno. A pesquisa foi realizada na cidade de Rio Claro/SP. As configurações escolhidas para análise foram uma avenida totalmente arborizada (S), uma praça (P) e um trecho de uma floresta periurbana (H) em áreas predominantemente residenciais com baixo gabarito de edificações. O trabalho de campo foi realizado em três dias consecutivos no período de seca e no período chuvoso. Os dados de temperatura e umidade foram obtidos por meio de registradores distribuídos ao longo de 200m nas ruas que se ramificavam para Norte, Sul, Leste e Oeste a partir do aglomerado arbóreo. As variáveis de velocidade e direção do vento foram registradas pela estação meteorológica do CEAPLA. Imagens termais do entorno das áreas foram obtidas com uma câmera termográfica. Foram aplicados questionários com os frequentadores das áreas verdes. Caracterizou-se o tecido urbano por meio de classificação supervisionada feita a partir de imagem multiespectral de alta resolução do satélite World-view 2. Polígonos circulares de 20m de raio foram gerados ao redor dos pontos onde os registradores permaneceram possibilitando correlacionar a porcentagem de cobertura com a temperatura e umidade do ponto. Mapas foram gerados no programa ARCMAP possibilitando visualizar a distribuição espacial da temperatura, amplitude e umidade relativa do ar nos locais. Nos locais do estudo nos horários mais quentes a temperatura e umidade do entorno variaram de 2 °C a 4 °C e 3 UR% a 15 UR%. Normalmente em ambientes semelhantes a variabilidade espacial da temperatura e umidade do ar não é alta e os fatores que mais influênciam essa mudança são a radiação solar e o vento local. Os valores mínimos de temperatura e máximos de umidade localizaram-se mais próximos à faixa florestada. As análises estatísticas mostram que ao considerar a variável distância a partir da área arborizada na análise geral, esta é considerada determinante na influência do aglomerado arbóreo no entorno, entretanto ao especificar a análise para cada local esta deixa de ser significativa nos locais H e P com significância somente no local S entre as distâncias 40 e 80m. Algumas coberturas, principalmente asfalto e copa de árvore, possuem correlação na variação da umidade e da temperatura dos pontos. A análise dos questionários mostra uma relação do conforto relatado com o fator de exposição ao sol. A observação qualitativa das imagens termais indica que os materiais de menor albedo como o asfalto superaquecem devido à radiação solar incidente, podendo chegar, nas horas mais quentes a 70°C, contribuindo para o desconforto. A forma mais barata e eficaz para solucionar este problema é promover o sombreamento das superfícies por meio da vegetação arbórea implantando corredores verdes na malha urbana com espécies de boa densidade foliar e copa ampla. / Given the importance of obtaining an urban design based on the microclimate and the possibility of the use of trees as a factor in mitigation of urban distress, this study evaluated the effect caused by three different spatial arrangements of urban forests and the use and occupation on soil in temperature and humidity of the environment in surroundings area. The research was conducted in the city of Rio Claro / SP. The configurations chosen for analysis were a fully forested avenue (S), a square (P) and a section from a periurban forest (H) in a area with predominantly residential buildings. Fieldwork was conducted in three consecutive days during the dry and rainy season. The air temperature and humidity were obtained by data loggers distributed over 200m in the streets that branched to the north, south, east and west from the tree cluster. The variable speed and wind direction were recorded by the meteorological station of CEAPLA. Thermal images of the surrounding areas were obtained with a thermographic camera. Questionnaires were applied to the green areas frequenters. Characterized the urban fabric by supervised classification made from multispectral image of high resolution two-view satellite World. Buffers with 20m were generated around the points where the data loggers remained possible to correlate the percentage of coverage with temperature and humidity of the point. Maps were generated in the ArcMap display showing the spatial distribution of temperature, amplitude and relative humidity at the sites. At the study sites, warmer periods in the surroundings showed temperatures and humidity ranged 2 °C to 4 °C and 3% RH to 15% RH. Usually in similar environments the spatial variability of temperature and humidity isn\'t high and the factors that influence this change are the local wind and solar radiation. The minimum temperature and maximum humidity were located closer to the forested area. Statistical analyzes show that when considering the distance variable in the overall analysis, this is considered decisive to influence of the tree cluster in the surroundings, however when the analysis is specific for each site the distance is no longer significant in the H and P sites and significant only in the place S between 40 and 80m distance. Some coverage, especially asphalt and canopy tree, show correlation between the variation of humidity and temperature points. Analysis of the questionnaires show a relationship between reported comforts with the exposure to the sun. A qualitative observation of thermal images indicate that the material of smaller reflectance as asphalt, overheat due to solar radiation, reaching, in the hottest hours at 70 ° C and contributes to discomfort. The most inexpensive and effective way to solve this problem is to promote the shading of surfaces by means of trees deploying green corridors in the urban area with good species of leaf density and ample canopy.

As árvores desempenham papel fundamental na qualidade ambiental das áreas urbanas. Como a floresta urbana é alvo constante de ações inadequadas de manejo, tais como podas inapropriadas, técnicas que visam avaliar a qualidade dos indivíduos e o risco de queda de árvores são fundamentais para a diminuição de possíveis danos causados aos equipamentos urbanos além de risco aos habitantes das cidades. Os métodos de avaliação visual de árvores desenvolvidos para a identificação de problemas biomecânicos e fitossanitários possibilitaram que avaliações de risco de queda fossem conduzidas. Nesses métodos, inspeções detalhadas a respeito da extensão das lesões presentes no colo e tronco, que podem comprometer sua estabilidade, são recomendadas para os indivíduos. Entre as técnicas utilizadas para o reconhecimento de lesões internas, a tomografia destaca-se por fornecer informações a respeito de toda seção avaliada com apenas uma medição e por gerar uma imagem que permite identificar o posicionamento e a extensão das áreas lesionadas. Por ser um método relativamente novo, são necessários estudos que visem identificar a resposta à tomografia em diferentes espécies, possibilitando desta forma a identificação precisa das áreas lesionadas. O trabalho realizado teve por objetivo testar a confiabilidade das informações geradas pela tomografia de impulso e identificar padrões de resposta em árvores de tipuana (Tipuana tipu (Benth.) O. Kuntze). Trinta e nove indivíduos que apresentaram sinais de injúria, apodrecimento, inclinação ou outros fatores que pudessem prejudicar sua estabilidade ou desenvolvimento foram avaliados por essa técnica. As velocidades de propagação de onda mecânica obtidas pela tomografia de impulso foram comparadas às leituras de resistência à penetração medidas por resistógrafo, objetivando identificar a correlação existente entre a tomografia de impulso e um método amplamente difundido para a quantificação de lesões internas (resistógrafo). As imagens que mostraram sinais nítidos de lesão foram avaliadas estatisticamente, o que possibilitou o reconhecimento de que velocidades de propagação de ondas mecânicas iguais ou inferiores a 729,65 m.s-1 representam tecidos lesionados para a espécie. As áreas periféricas às lesões avaliadas não apresentaram diferenças estatisticamente significativas em relação às velocidades encontradas. Análises estatísticas indicam a existência de forte correlação entre as leituras tomográficas e do resistógrafo. Foi obtido coeficiente de determinação (R²) igual a 0,9977 no modelo adotado. A tomografia de impulso é uma importante ferramenta para a complementação da avaliação visual de árvores, permitindo a identificação e quantificação precisa de lesões internas na seção avaliada. / Trees perform a fundamental role in environmental quality of urban environments. As the urban forest is often exposed to inadequate management actions, such as improperly pruning, techniques to evaluate the quality of individuals and the risk of trees falling are essential to reduce the possible hazard to urban equipment and the risk to city dwellers. The visual tree assessment developed for the identification of biomechanical problems made it possible for hazard assessments to be conducted. In these methods, detailed inspections regarding the extent of the lesions found in the root collar and trunk are recommended for those who had clear signs of injuries that can affect their stability. Among the techniques used for the recognition of internal injuries, tree tomography is noted for providing information regarding an entire cross-section evaluated with only one measurement, generating an image that identifies the position and extent of injured areas. Being a relatively new method, studies aimed to identifying the tomography response in different species are needed, thus to enable an accurate identification of the injured areas. This work aimed to test the reliability of the information generated by the impulse tomography and to identify patterns of response on tipuana trees (Tipuana tipu (Benth.) O. Kuntze). Thirty-nine individuals of tipuana that presented signs of injury, decay, leaning or other factors that could affect its stability or development were evaluated by this technique. The speed of mechanical wave propagation obtained by the impulse tomography was crossed to resistograph measurements readings of resistance to penetration in order to identify the correlation between impulse tomography and a method widely known for the quantification of internal injuries (resistograph). The imagery showing clear signs of injury was evaluated statistically, allowing to identify that mechanical waves propagation with speed equal or lower than 729,65 m.s-1 represents injured tissues for the specie. The peripheral lesion areas evaluated did not show statistically significant differences in the speeds found. Statistical analysis indicates that there was a strong correlation between the readings of impulse tomography and resistograph. The coefficient of determination (R²) equal to 0.9977 was obtained in the adopted model. Impulse tomography is an important tool to complement the visual assessment of trees, allowing the precise identification and quantification of internal injuries in the evaluated cross-section.

Street trees are an important component of the urban forest that can provide direct and indirect benefits to social and ecological sustainability in cities. Temporal and spatial interactions between human and non-human management agents determine the distribution and health of street tree populations in urban areas. This dissertation seeks to enhance our understanding of the spatial patterns and processes affecting street trees by investigating the agents and social-ecological determinants of changes to street tree distributions in urban residential neighborhoods. The research was guided by three primary questions: (1) Are recent changes to the spatial distribution of street trees influenced by socio-demographic household and neighborhood characteristics? (2) Which management agents are the strongest predictors of recent changes to street tree distributions and does the contribution of these agents vary in relationship to social-ecological patterns within a city? (3) To what extent are household street tree management decisions related to the built and bioecological material characteristics of the public right-of-way? These questions were investigated in a case study that examined street tree management and public right-of-way (PROW) canopy change associated with single-family residential areas in and near the City of Tampa, Florida. The methodological approach employed a multi-method design using a conceptual framework developed to capture the complexity of management within human ecosystems. Urban remote sensing and spatial analytical techniques were used to examine the geographic association between patterns of street tree change and socio-demographic characteristics. Household survey techniques were utilized to examine the determinants of street tree management; specifically planting, removal, and trimming. Interviews with key informants familiar with urban forest management provided additional insights to complement the location specific knowledge of household survey respondents. Street tree change was examined for the period of 2003 to 2006, and information about household management actions also included recent years (i.e., 2009-2011). A citywide pattern of street tree increases was disproportionately distributed with respect to socioeconomic status; with greater increases in affluent neighborhoods. Patterns of change within local portions of the study area revealed significant and spatially variable relationships with socioeconomic status, as well as race/ethnicity variables and indicators of lifestyle differences. The findings suggest that the citywide pattern of change associated with socioeconomic status may perpetuate an inequitable outcome in the distribution of street trees at the expense of less affluent neighborhoods. The local patterns of change indicate that the processes driving street tree distributions may also reflect differences in attitudes toward trees. The case study did not find sufficient evidence to link the actions of individual agents with street tree change. Street tree increases were more likely in areas where tree trimming had been reported and where property market values were greater, but less likely in PROW segments with overhead power lines. Households, public agencies and builders, but not neighborhoods, were the primary human street tree management agents. Past and ongoing land development and redevelopment decisions, including the configuration of PROW infrastructures, may be one of the most important factors affecting patterns of street tree change. Landscape decisions and practices influenced by household and neighborhood group dynamics also appear to be important factors affecting street tree change. Damages caused by storm event and differences in tree species lifecycle characteristics represent important non-human agents of street tree change. The findings indicated that public agencies are not the only managers of street trees and household tree management does not stop at the boundary of private property. There was no evidence of a relationship between household management actions and the material conditions of the PROW. However, there was a relationship between the presence of either power lines or sidewalks and household survey responses about who should bear responsibility for street tree management and the liability. Household respondents expressed an increased sense of personal responsibility for street tree management when a sidewalk was in front of their home. This dissertation addressed an important gap in understanding about the factors driving street tree change. Planting, removal, and trimming of street trees in Tampa is a shared responsibility with complex spatial patterns and multi-scalar drivers. An important conclusion is that the sustainability of street tree populations within the urban forest will require urban planners and managers to better understand how these management agents cooperate if they are to promote healthy, safe and beneficial street tree populations as a part of the urban forest.

This thesis explores and analyzes the demand for and supply of forests in and near urban areas from a social perspective. Specific focus is directed towards recreational qualities of forests located just outside urban borders, that is, urban fringe forests. To this end, the thesis is based on four empirical research papers. Papers I and II explore the demand component, while Paper III focuses on the supply component. Finally, Paper IV integrates issues of both demand and supply. In Paper I, a survey directed to the general public in urban areas is used to address differences between public attitudes to the forest in general and to the urban fringe forest more specifically. Paper II builds upon interviews with municipal planners with responsibility for green space issues in nine Swedish cities. In Paper III, spatial forest data is analyzed in a GIS to examine how urbanization and population developments influence the supply of urban fringe forests over time. Spatial analysis is further used in Paper IV to quantify forest attractiveness and accessibility in a single measure of urban fringe forest demand and supply. In Paper I it is shown that urban residents associate the urban fringe forest with a variety of design characteristics, as people’s opinions do not solely concern social qualities but also ecological and functional qualities. It is concluded that the overall influence of socioeconomic and demographic attributes is modest in comparison to the basic values and beliefs people hold about life, the environment, and the forest in general. In Paper II it is demonstrated that it is imperative for municipalities to own forest, since this allows them to secure sufficient provisions of recreational forests for future residents and from urban land developments. However, as private citizens do generally not take part of local planning and management decision-making there is an obvious risk for decisions biased towards the interests of social organizations, with specific activity and structural demands that do not necessarily reflect the interests of the general public. From Paper III it is evident that urbanization and population developments do not necessarily lead to a reduced supply of urban fringe forests over time; forest management practices are equally important to consider with regards to people’s opportunities to visit attractive forests for recreation. Finally, in Paper IV it is shown that more attractive forests are generally less accessible to urban residents, regardless of mode of transportation, and that the accessibility to urban fringe forests is generally lower in more deprived neighborhoods. / <p>The research for <em>Paper I </em>of this thesis was conducted in collaboration with Future Forests, a multidisciplinary research program, and its sponsors: the Strategic Foundation for Environmental Research (Mistra), the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Umeå University, the Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), and the Forestry Industry in Sweden. The research for <em>Papers II-IV</em> was made possible with financial support from the Centre for Environmental Research in Umeå (CMF). Additional financial support was received from the Gösta Skoglund foundation, the Kempe foundation, and the Carl-Fredric von Horn foundation.</p>

As árvores desempenham papel fundamental na qualidade ambiental das áreas urbanas. Como a floresta urbana é alvo constante de ações inadequadas de manejo, tais como podas inapropriadas, técnicas que visam avaliar a qualidade dos indivíduos e o risco de queda de árvores são fundamentais para a diminuição de possíveis danos causados aos equipamentos urbanos além de risco aos habitantes das cidades. Os métodos de avaliação visual de árvores desenvolvidos para a identificação de problemas biomecânicos e fitossanitários possibilitaram que avaliações de risco de queda fossem conduzidas. Nesses métodos, inspeções detalhadas a respeito da extensão das lesões presentes no colo e tronco, que podem comprometer sua estabilidade, são recomendadas para os indivíduos. Entre as técnicas utilizadas para o reconhecimento de lesões internas, a tomografia destaca-se por fornecer informações a respeito de toda seção avaliada com apenas uma medição e por gerar uma imagem que permite identificar o posicionamento e a extensão das áreas lesionadas. Por ser um método relativamente novo, são necessários estudos que visem identificar a resposta à tomografia em diferentes espécies, possibilitando desta forma a identificação precisa das áreas lesionadas. O trabalho realizado teve por objetivo testar a confiabilidade das informações geradas pela tomografia de impulso e identificar padrões de resposta em árvores de tipuana (Tipuana tipu (Benth.) O. Kuntze). Trinta e nove indivíduos que apresentaram sinais de injúria, apodrecimento, inclinação ou outros fatores que pudessem prejudicar sua estabilidade ou desenvolvimento foram avaliados por essa técnica. As velocidades de propagação de onda mecânica obtidas pela tomografia de impulso foram comparadas às leituras de resistência à penetração medidas por resistógrafo, objetivando identificar a correlação existente entre a tomografia de impulso e um método amplamente difundido para a quantificação de lesões internas (resistógrafo). As imagens que mostraram sinais nítidos de lesão foram avaliadas estatisticamente, o que possibilitou o reconhecimento de que velocidades de propagação de ondas mecânicas iguais ou inferiores a 729,65 m.s-1 representam tecidos lesionados para a espécie. As áreas periféricas às lesões avaliadas não apresentaram diferenças estatisticamente significativas em relação às velocidades encontradas. Análises estatísticas indicam a existência de forte correlação entre as leituras tomográficas e do resistógrafo. Foi obtido coeficiente de determinação (R²) igual a 0,9977 no modelo adotado. A tomografia de impulso é uma importante ferramenta para a complementação da avaliação visual de árvores, permitindo a identificação e quantificação precisa de lesões internas na seção avaliada. / Trees perform a fundamental role in environmental quality of urban environments. As the urban forest is often exposed to inadequate management actions, such as improperly pruning, techniques to evaluate the quality of individuals and the risk of trees falling are essential to reduce the possible hazard to urban equipment and the risk to city dwellers. The visual tree assessment developed for the identification of biomechanical problems made it possible for hazard assessments to be conducted. In these methods, detailed inspections regarding the extent of the lesions found in the root collar and trunk are recommended for those who had clear signs of injuries that can affect their stability. Among the techniques used for the recognition of internal injuries, tree tomography is noted for providing information regarding an entire cross-section evaluated with only one measurement, generating an image that identifies the position and extent of injured areas. Being a relatively new method, studies aimed to identifying the tomography response in different species are needed, thus to enable an accurate identification of the injured areas. This work aimed to test the reliability of the information generated by the impulse tomography and to identify patterns of response on tipuana trees (Tipuana tipu (Benth.) O. Kuntze). Thirty-nine individuals of tipuana that presented signs of injury, decay, leaning or other factors that could affect its stability or development were evaluated by this technique. The speed of mechanical wave propagation obtained by the impulse tomography was crossed to resistograph measurements readings of resistance to penetration in order to identify the correlation between impulse tomography and a method widely known for the quantification of internal injuries (resistograph). The imagery showing clear signs of injury was evaluated statistically, allowing to identify that mechanical waves propagation with speed equal or lower than 729,65 m.s-1 represents injured tissues for the specie. The peripheral lesion areas evaluated did not show statistically significant differences in the speeds found. Statistical analysis indicates that there was a strong correlation between the readings of impulse tomography and resistograph. The coefficient of determination (R²) equal to 0.9977 was obtained in the adopted model. Impulse tomography is an important tool to complement the visual assessment of trees, allowing the precise identification and quantification of internal injuries in the evaluated cross-section.

Tendo em vista a importância de se obter um desenho urbano baseado no microclima e a possibilidade da utilização da vegetação arbórea como um elemento determinante na mitigação do desconforto urbano, este trabalho avaliou o efeito provocado por três diferentes arranjos espaciais de floresta urbana e do uso e ocupação do solo sobre a temperatura e umidade do entorno. A pesquisa foi realizada na cidade de Rio Claro/SP. As configurações escolhidas para análise foram uma avenida totalmente arborizada (S), uma praça (P) e um trecho de uma floresta periurbana (H) em áreas predominantemente residenciais com baixo gabarito de edificações. O trabalho de campo foi realizado em três dias consecutivos no período de seca e no período chuvoso. Os dados de temperatura e umidade foram obtidos por meio de registradores distribuídos ao longo de 200m nas ruas que se ramificavam para Norte, Sul, Leste e Oeste a partir do aglomerado arbóreo. As variáveis de velocidade e direção do vento foram registradas pela estação meteorológica do CEAPLA. Imagens termais do entorno das áreas foram obtidas com uma câmera termográfica. Foram aplicados questionários com os frequentadores das áreas verdes. Caracterizou-se o tecido urbano por meio de classificação supervisionada feita a partir de imagem multiespectral de alta resolução do satélite World-view 2. Polígonos circulares de 20m de raio foram gerados ao redor dos pontos onde os registradores permaneceram possibilitando correlacionar a porcentagem de cobertura com a temperatura e umidade do ponto. Mapas foram gerados no programa ARCMAP possibilitando visualizar a distribuição espacial da temperatura, amplitude e umidade relativa do ar nos locais. Nos locais do estudo nos horários mais quentes a temperatura e umidade do entorno variaram de 2 °C a 4 °C e 3 UR% a 15 UR%. Normalmente em ambientes semelhantes a variabilidade espacial da temperatura e umidade do ar não é alta e os fatores que mais influênciam essa mudança são a radiação solar e o vento local. Os valores mínimos de temperatura e máximos de umidade localizaram-se mais próximos à faixa florestada. As análises estatísticas mostram que ao considerar a variável distância a partir da área arborizada na análise geral, esta é considerada determinante na influência do aglomerado arbóreo no entorno, entretanto ao especificar a análise para cada local esta deixa de ser significativa nos locais H e P com significância somente no local S entre as distâncias 40 e 80m. Algumas coberturas, principalmente asfalto e copa de árvore, possuem correlação na variação da umidade e da temperatura dos pontos. A análise dos questionários mostra uma relação do conforto relatado com o fator de exposição ao sol. A observação qualitativa das imagens termais indica que os materiais de menor albedo como o asfalto superaquecem devido à radiação solar incidente, podendo chegar, nas horas mais quentes a 70°C, contribuindo para o desconforto. A forma mais barata e eficaz para solucionar este problema é promover o sombreamento das superfícies por meio da vegetação arbórea implantando corredores verdes na malha urbana com espécies de boa densidade foliar e copa ampla. / Given the importance of obtaining an urban design based on the microclimate and the possibility of the use of trees as a factor in mitigation of urban distress, this study evaluated the effect caused by three different spatial arrangements of urban forests and the use and occupation on soil in temperature and humidity of the environment in surroundings area. The research was conducted in the city of Rio Claro / SP. The configurations chosen for analysis were a fully forested avenue (S), a square (P) and a section from a periurban forest (H) in a area with predominantly residential buildings. Fieldwork was conducted in three consecutive days during the dry and rainy season. The air temperature and humidity were obtained by data loggers distributed over 200m in the streets that branched to the north, south, east and west from the tree cluster. The variable speed and wind direction were recorded by the meteorological station of CEAPLA. Thermal images of the surrounding areas were obtained with a thermographic camera. Questionnaires were applied to the green areas frequenters. Characterized the urban fabric by supervised classification made from multispectral image of high resolution two-view satellite World. Buffers with 20m were generated around the points where the data loggers remained possible to correlate the percentage of coverage with temperature and humidity of the point. Maps were generated in the ArcMap display showing the spatial distribution of temperature, amplitude and relative humidity at the sites. At the study sites, warmer periods in the surroundings showed temperatures and humidity ranged 2 °C to 4 °C and 3% RH to 15% RH. Usually in similar environments the spatial variability of temperature and humidity isn\'t high and the factors that influence this change are the local wind and solar radiation. The minimum temperature and maximum humidity were located closer to the forested area. Statistical analyzes show that when considering the distance variable in the overall analysis, this is considered decisive to influence of the tree cluster in the surroundings, however when the analysis is specific for each site the distance is no longer significant in the H and P sites and significant only in the place S between 40 and 80m distance. Some coverage, especially asphalt and canopy tree, show correlation between the variation of humidity and temperature points. Analysis of the questionnaires show a relationship between reported comforts with the exposure to the sun. A qualitative observation of thermal images indicate that the material of smaller reflectance as asphalt, overheat due to solar radiation, reaching, in the hottest hours at 70 ° C and contributes to discomfort. The most inexpensive and effective way to solve this problem is to promote the shading of surfaces by means of trees deploying green corridors in the urban area with good species of leaf density and ample canopy.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-06-01T15:15:54Z No. of bitstreams: 1 marcelacezartagliati.pdf: 5244487 bytes, checksum: a87832a5419e4b3fcdd060720ee09698 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-07-02T13:01:12Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 marcelacezartagliati.pdf: 5244487 bytes, checksum: a87832a5419e4b3fcdd060720ee09698 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-07-02T13:01:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 marcelacezartagliati.pdf: 5244487 bytes, checksum: a87832a5419e4b3fcdd060720ee09698 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-04-04 / CNPq - Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Bromeliaceae figura como a quarta família de Angiospermas com maior riqueza de espécies do domínio Atlântico. Neste bioma, atua como uma das principais famílias responsáveis pela oferta e manutenção de recursos alimentares ao longo do ano para uma diversificada fauna de polinizadores, em especial beija-flores. Apesar da elevada importância ecológica, ainda existe pouco conhecimento sobre muitos aspectos da biologia reprodutiva da maioria das espécies de bromélias. Neste contexto, a presente dissertação está estruturada em dois capítulos, onde os estudos foram conduzidos em um remanescente de Floresta Atlântica localizado no município de Juiz de Fora (MG), sudeste do Brasil. O Capítulo I teve como objetivos caracterizar o padrão fenológico reprodutivo e levantar aspectos da biologia floral e polinização de nove espécies de Bromeliaceae. O padrão de floração seqüencial das espécies na comunidade e a assincronia de floração entre os indivíduos dentro da população, não apenas garantem a oferta de recursos alimentares aos visitantes florais ao longo ano, como também sugerem tratar-se de estratégias para evitar a competição inter e intraespecífica por polinizadores. Pólen foi o principal recurso floral oferecido e néctar apenas não foi produzido por duas espécies. Nove espécies de polinizadores foram registradas, sendo quatro de beija-flores, uma de morcego, três de lepidópteros e uma de himenóptero, onde o beija-flor Phaethornis pretrei parece atuar como “polinizador-chave” dentro da comunidade estudada. O Capítulo II teve como objetivos investigar os sistemas de cruzamento e sucesso reprodutivo de Portea petropolitana e Billbergia horrida, duas espécies endêmicas da Floresta Atlântica brasileira cujas populações naturais vêm sendo ameaçadas pela ação antrópica, especialmente pela fragmentação de habitats. Ambas as espécies são autoincompatíveis e alógamas, dependentes de polinizadores para formação de frutos e sementes, e na área de estudo, apresentam alta taxa de frutificação sob condições naturais. Portea petropolitana é polinizada efetivamente por beija-flores. Já B. horrida apresenta um sistema de polinização mais generalista, envolvendo morcegos, mariposas e beija-flores. Em suma, este trabalho ampliou o conhecimento sobre aspectos da biologia reprodutiva da família Bromeliaceae, e gerou dados importantes para subsidiar o desenvolvimento de estratégias para a conservação de habitats naturais afetados por processos de fragmentação e das espécies estudadas. Palavras-chave: biologia reprodutiva; Bromeliaceae; Floresta Atlântica; fragmentos florestais urbanos. / Bromeliaceae is considered the fourth family of Angiosperms with the largest species richness of the Atlantic domain. In this biome, acts as one of the main families responsible for providing and maintaining food resources throughout the year for a diverse fauna of pollinators, especially hummingbirds. Despite the high ecological importance, there is still little knowledge about many aspects of reproductive biology of most species of bromeliads. In this context, this paper is structured in two chapters, where the studies were conducted in an Atlantic Forest remnant in the city of Juiz de Fora (MG), southeastern Brazil. Chapter I aimed to characterize the phenological pattern of breeding and investigate aspects of floral biology and pollination of nine species of Bromeliaceae. The sequential flowering of the species in the community and flowering asynchrony among individuals within the population, not only ensure the availability of food resources to flower visitors throughout the year, but also suggest to be strategies to avoid inter and intraspecific competition for pollinators. Pollen was the main floral resource offered and nectar was not produced by only two species. Nine species of pollinators were recorded, four of hummingbirds, one bat, three of Lepidoptera and one hymenopteran, where the hummingbird Phaethornis pretrei seems to act as "pollinatorkey" within the community studied. Chapter II aimed to investigate the breeding systems and reproductive success of Portea petropolitana and Billbergia horrida, two endemic species of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest whose natural populations are being threatened by human activity, especially by habitat fragmentation. Both species are allogamous and autoincompatible, and dependent of pollinators for fruit and seed formation, and in the study area, have a high rate of fruit set under natural conditions. Portea petropolitana is effectively pollinated by hummingbirds. B. horrida, on the other hand, has a generalist pollination system involving bats, moths and hummingbirds. In summary, this study extended the knowledge about aspects of the reproductive biology of Bromeliaceae, and generated important data to support the development of strategies for the conservation of natural habitats affected by fragmentation processes and the species studied.

La realización de esta memoria se encuentra en el marco del proyecto Fondecyt de Iniciación N°1180990 "Construcción social del clima urbano: hacia la calidad y justicia climática en ciudades chilenas". / Memoria para optar al título de Geógrafo / El deterioro en la calidad del aire es uno de los principales problemas ambientales que afectan a las ciudades alrededor del mundo, siendo la polución por material particulado 2,5 (MP2,5) la más peligrosa y mortal para el ser humano. Diversas también han sido las soluciones propuestas para ayudar a mitigar los efectos negativos de la contaminación atmosférica. De estas, una de las que ha tomado mayor fuerza durante el último tiempo corresponde a la utilización de los árboles urbanos para disminuir la contaminación al interior de las ciudades. Mediante el software I-Tree Eco, desarrollado por el Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos (USDA), se analizaron los efectos que posee el arbolado urbano sobre la interceptación y posterior absorción de MP2,5, al interior de la ciudad de Concepción, Región del Biobío, Chile. A partir de datos de calidad de aire, precipitación y la estructura de los árboles urbanos, el software permite estimar la cantidad de contaminación del aire removida durante un año por los árboles. Para lograr el propósito de la investigación, se utilizaron datos desde el Sistema de Información Nacional de Calidad del Aire (SINCA), mientras que el relleno de datos faltantes de esta base de datos, se realizó por medio del método de imputación de datos individual (SDEM Model). Por otra parte, la base de datos de precipitación se obtuvo desde la Red Agroclimática Nacional (AGROMET). Luego, mediante la fotointerpretación de imágenes satelitales a través de Google Earth, más las capas de levantamiento de espacios verdes, extraídas desde la red CEDEUS y el trabajo en terreno, se identificaron los elementos de la infraestructura verde de mayor relevancia, localizados al interior de la ciudad de Concepción. Junto con ello, se identificó al Parque Ecuador como uno de los espacios más importantes, debido a su tamaño y cercanía con el centro de la ciudad, asimismo, se realizó un inventario completo de los árboles urbanos presentes en su interior, identificando su estructura. Estos datos fueron procesados por el software, obteniendo la eliminación total de la contaminación por MP2,5, su capacidad de almacenamiento y secuestro de carbono, y la emisión total de compuestos orgánicos volátiles biogénicos (COVBs) que poseen los árboles urbanos del parque. Los resultados demuestran que el parque al año eliminó un total de 4,52 Kg de MP2,5, mientras que la tasa de eliminación fue de 0,13 gm-2 por cobertura arbórea; el almacenamiento de carbono fue de 350 toneladas de carbono y su secuestro bruto fue de 3,24 toneladas métricas por año, mientras que las especies del parque anualmente emiten un total de 50,48 Kg de COVBs. / Deterioration of air quality is one of the main environmental problems affecting cities around the world, with particulate matter pollution 2.5 (PM2.5) being the most dangerous and deadly for humans. The proposed solutions to help mitigate the negative effects of air pollution have been diverse; of these, one that has taken greater strength on recent times has been the use of urban trees to reduce pollution inside the cities. This way, through the software I-Tree Eco, developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the effects of urban trees on the interception and subsequent absorption of PM2.5, inside of Concepción city, Biobío region, Chile were analyzed. Using data of air quality, precipitation and the structure of urban trees, the software allows to estimate the amount of air pollution removed by trees over a year. To achieve the objective of this research, data from the National Air Quality Information System (SINCA) was used, while the filling of missing data was done through the individual data imputation method (SDEM Model). Complete rainfall data was obtained from the National Agroclimatic Network (AGROMET). Then, through photointerpretation of satellite images from Google Earth, plus the layers of green space surveying, extracted from the CEDEUS network and workfield, the most relevant elements of the green infrastructure inside the city of Concepcion were identified. Ecuador Park was identified as one of the most relevant spaces on this city, and a complete inventory of the urban trees that are present inside of it was made, identifying its structure. The data was then processed by the software, obtaining the total elimination of the contamination by PM2.5, their storage capacity and carbon sequestration, and their emission of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) that the urban trees of the park have. The results show that the park eliminated a total of 4.52 Kg of MP2.5 per year, while the elimination rate was 0.13 gm-2 for tree coverage; carbon storage was 350 tons of carbon and its gross sequestration was 3.24 metric tons per year, while the park species annually emit a total of 50.48 Kg of BVOCs.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels were measured inside and adjacent to canopies of urban trees in Springfield, MA, over two growing seasons. Nitrogen dioxide levels were consistently and significantly higher inside tree canopies compared to levels outside. During the second growing season, ozone (O3), temperature, and relative humidity (RH) were also measured using samplers co-located with the NO2 samplers. Ozone levels were significantly lower inside the canopy whereas temperatures were higher inside the canopy, and RH was not different between inner and outer canopy locations. The results corroborate theoretical models predicting elevated NO2 and depressed O3 levels inside tree canopies based on photochemistry, but put into question the mechanisms involved in generating these levels. In a separate study, the use of a common urban street tree (Acer rubrum) as a tool for measuring NO2 uptake under field conditions was evaluated using a model previously applied only to potted herbaceous plants and coniferous trees. Using potted saplings of A. rubrum located at locations with high or low NO2 levels in Springfield, MA, and Amherst, MA, we measured 15N stable isotope signatures (δ15N) and total N (%N) of leaves throughout the growing season. There was no significant difference in leaf δ15N or %N change between sites over the course of the season. Changes in δ15N were likely the result of input from N sources in the nutrient solution. Changes in %N followed a natural seasonal decline reported elsewhere in the literature. The study highlights the difficulties in applying this particular model to deciduous trees and suggests work needed to overcome these challenges.