L’interaction des phénomènes de transfert de chaleur et de masse dans un tissu urbain avec les apports anthropiques participent à l’îlot de chaleur urbain et à la dégradation de la performance énergétique des bâtiments. L’objectif de cette étude est de définir l’impact de la modification des propriétés radiatives aux façades des bâtiments qui peut être réalisée par l’utilisation de revêtements sélectifs colorés récemment développés pour les toitures. Les flux sensibles et l’impact sur les bâtiments sont étudiés pour une morphologie caractéristique des milieux urbains denses, la rue canyon. Un suivi expérimental mené sur des surfaces élémentaires de propriétés radiatives différentes nous a permis de développer par une méthode d’optimisation un procédé de détermination simultané du coefficient de convection et des absorptivités solaires effectives sur la période de mesure. L’utilisation de peintures sélectives dans la configuration canyon retenue est ensuite analysée expérimentalement. Pour cela une maquette (1/10ème) de scène urbaine a été conçue sur la base de 5 rangées de cuves de béton creux qui ont fait l’objet de mesures de températures et de flux radiatifs. Dans un premier temps, le traitement de deux mois de mesures a permis de caractériser les évolutions de champs de températures liés à cette forme urbaine. Par la suite, trois configurations de propriétés radiatives aux façades ont été étudiées simultanément et ont permis d’analyser les modifications spécifiques sur les champs de température, de sur-faces et d’air. Afin d’estimer les économies d’énergie réalisables sur un bâtiment réel ainsi que l’impact sur son environnement proche, une étude paramétrique des revêtements de façade et de la chaussée a été effectuée par des simulations de l’interaction du bâti et du micro-climat. Les méthodes et expériences établies dans cette étude nous permettent d’envisager le développement du traitement des façades et de la caractérisation de leurs performances globales. / Modified heat and mass transfer in the urban built and anthropogenic loads contribute to the urban heat island phenomenon as to the deterioration of building energy efficiency. The scope of this study is to define the impact implied by the modification of façade radiative properties that can be achieved by using selective cool-coloured coatings initially developed for roofing. Sensible heat transfers and consequences on building comfort are studied through a characteristic morphology from dense urban environment, the street canyon. Monitoring of surface energy budget on elementary discs of different radiative properties allowed us to develop, through optimisation method, a process to determine simultaneously the effective solar absorptivities and a convective heat transfer coefficient on the measurement period. The following step consists in an experimental analysis of cool selective paints in the chosen canyon configuration. A reduced-scale model (1/10th) of an urban scene has been designed with 5 rows of hollow concrete tanks that had temperatures and radiative fluxes monitored. Measured data for uniform coatings allowed highlighting the temperature evolution linked to the particular urban form. Afterwards, three façades radiative properties configurations have been studied simultaneously and allowed the analysis of those specific modifications on air and surface temperature fields. Lastly, in order to estimate energy consumption savings on real scale buildings as well as the impact on the near urban environment, a parametric study on coating of façades and roads has been performed through simulation taking into account interactive heat transfers between the built environment and the microclimate. The experiments and methods designed along the study permit to consider façade coating development and global efficiency characterization.

Dans le contexte du changement climatique, la chaleur est, depuis le début des années 2000, une préoccupation grandissante, d’abord en tant qu’enjeu sanitaire puis comme problématique affectant la qualité de vie des citoyens. Au Québec, le concept d’îlot de chaleur urbain, issu de la climatologie urbaine, a graduellement émergé dans le discours des autorités et de certains acteurs de l’aménagement. Or, on constate l’existence d’un certain décalage entre les connaissances scientifiques et l’interprétation qu’en font les urbanistes. Dans le cadre de ce mémoire, on a tenté d’identifier les facteurs explicatifs de ce décalage en s’intéressant au processus d’acquisition des connaissances des urbanistes québécois. Par le biais d’entretiens réalisés auprès des principaux acteurs ayant contribué à l’émergence de l’ICU au Québec, on a été en mesure d’identifier les éléments ayant entraîné certaines distorsions des connaissances. L’absence d’interdisciplinarité entre la climatologie urbaine et l’urbanisme tout au long du processus d’acquisition des connaissances ainsi qu’une interprétation tronquée de la carte des températures de surface expliquent principalement la nature du décalage observé. / In the context of current debates on climate change, heat has become a growing concern since the early 2000s, as it impacts people’s health and quality of life. As an element of urban climatology, the concept of urban heat islands emerged as a standard reference used by a number of Quebec scholars and practitioners in environmental management. However, there appears to be certain discrepancies between our current scientific knowledge and its interpretation by urban planners. The objective of this thesis is to better understand the factors that explain this discrepancy, through a study of knowledge acquisition among Quebec urban planners. Using a series of interviews with key actors in the emerging field of UHI’s in Quebec, it has been possible to identify the elements that caused distortions in knowledge transfer. Generally, the lack of interdisciplinarity in the areas of urban climatology and planning throughout the knowledge acquisition process, as well as a partial understanding of the surface temperature maps, help explain the nature of these discrepancies.

A influência benéfica de áreas verdes no conforto humano em áreas urbanas tem sido reconhecida por estudos de diferentes campos do conhecimento. A fim de verificar a relação existente do conforto humano com métricas de cobertura arbórea na cidade de Piracicaba/SP, foram dispostos 43 registradores higrotérmicos microprocessados durante 40 dias de coleta tanto na estação chuvosa e seca dos anos de (2015-2016), bem como uma estação meteorológica móvel, da marca Davis Vantage Vu, de modo a obter as variáveis de conforto humano relacionadas com a sensação térmica relatada pelos residentes. Para tanto, foram utilizados índices de avaliação de conforto térmico (UTCI - Universal Thermal Comfort Index) e (PET- Physiologically Equivalent Temperature) obtidos por meio do modelo RayMan Pro. Questionários aplicados aos residentes das áreas de estudo possibilitaram verificar se os resultados obtidos por meio dos índices UTCI e PET correspondiam à real sensação de conforto térmico relatada pelos entrevistados. O tecido urbano foi caracterizado por meio de classificação supervisionada realizada pelo software MultiSpec feita a partir de imagem multiespectral de alta resolução do satélite WorldView 2 no ano de 2011 para a cidade de Piracicaba/SP. Buffers (áreas de influências dos pontos analisados) de 10, 20 e 500 metros foram gerados ao redor dos pontos de estudo pelo software Quantum Gis, v. 2.4, possibilitando correlacionar a porcentagem de cobertura com os dados microclimáticos obtidos com o objetivo de se obter modelos estatísticos que conseguissem predizer o quanto de cobertura arbórea seria necessária para a diminuição de uma dada temperatura média urbana. Foram obtidos valores de Índice de Floresta Urbana (IFU) para os bairros analisados. As estações Davis Vantage Vu foi calibrada com a da ESALQ/USP no intuito de que os dados climáticos tivessem maior veracidade e estivessem condizentes com a sensação térmica relatada pelos entrevistados; além disso, foram feitos ajustes dos dias de coleta na tentativa de padronizá-los. Dentre os resultados obtidos, os valores de IFUs corresponderam aos bairros mais confortáveis. Verificou-se, também, maior correlação dos dados microclimáticos dos 43 pontos com o uso e ocupação do solo para buffers de 20 metros na estação chuvosa e buffers de 500 metros na estação seca. Sendo assim, modelos estatísticos serviram para afirmar que aproximadamente 57% (R2 = 0,57) do valor da temperatura média urbana foi explicado pela quantidade de cobertura arbórea na estação chuvosa e 60% (R2 = 0,60) do valor da temperatura média urbana foi explicado pela quantidade de cobertura arbórea na estação seca. Como resultado precípuo desta pesquisa, os modelos gerados permitiram responder uma resposta ainda inexistente: a quantidade de árvores necessária para diminuir o calor excessivo em determinada área urbana, algo altamente desejável em tempos de alterações climáticas e com cidades em crise de abastecimento de água e energia elétrica. Constatou-se, portanto, que para diminuir 1°C da temperatura média urbana é necessário acrescentar 14,31% de cobertura arbórea na estação seca e 27,70% na estação chuvosa no município de Piracicaba/SP. Como avanço nesta pesquisa e inédito para a cidade, os modelos estatísticos permitem ser adotados por outras cidades com a finalidade de proporcionar maior conforto ambiental urbano para a população e inspecionar e avaliar a situação da arborização urbana nas cidades brasileiras. / The beneficial influence of green areas on human comfort in urban areas has been recognized by studies from different fields of knowledge. In order to verify the existing relationship of human comfort with tree cover metrics in the city of Piracicaba/SP, 43 microprocessed hygrothermal registers were arranged during 40 days of collection in both rainy and dry season of the years 2015-2016, as well as a mobile weather station of the Davis Vantage Vu brand, in order to obtain the human comfort variables related to the thermal sensation reported by residents. The thermal comfort index (UTCI) and PET (Physiologically Equivalent Temperature) values were obtained using the RayMan Pro model. Questionnaires applied to the residents of the study areas made it possible to verify if the results obtained through the UTCI and PET index corresponded to the real sensation of thermal comfort reported by the interviewees. The urban area was characterized by supervised classification performed by MultiSpec software made from a high-resolution multispectral image of WorldView 2 satellite in 2011 for the city of Piracicaba/SP. Buffers (areas of influence of the analyzed points) of 10, 20 and 500 meters were generated around the points of study by Quantum Gis software, v. 2.4, making it possible to correlate the percentage of coverage with the microclimatic data, obtained with the objective of make statistical models that could predict how much tree cover would be necessary for the decrease of a given urban temperature average. Urban Forest Index (IFU) values were obtained for the neighborhoods analyzed. The Davis Vantage Vu stations were calibrated with ESALQ/USP stations in order to make the climate data more accurate and consistent with the thermal sensation reported by the interviewees; In addition, adjustments of collection days were made in an attempt to standardize them. Among the results obtained, IFU values corresponded to the most comfortable neighborhoods. It was also verified a higher correlation of the microclimatic data of the 43 points with the use and occupation of the soil for buffers of 20 meters in the rainy season and buffers of 500 meters in the dry season. Thus, statistical models served to assert that approximately 57% (R² = 0.57) of the mean urban temperature was explained by the amount of tree cover in the rainy season and 60% (R² = 0.60) of the average temperature was explained by the amount of tree cover in the dry season. As a result of this research, the models generated allowed to respond to a still non-existent response: the amount of trees needed to reduce excessive heat in a given urban area, something highly desirable in times of climate change and with cities in crisis of water and energy supply power. It was verified, therefore, that to reduce 1°C of the urban average temperature it is necessary to add 14.31% of tree cover in the dry season and 27.70% in the rainy season in the city of Piracicaba/SP. As an advance in this research and unprecedented for the city, the statistical models allow adoption by other cities with the purpose of providing greater urban environmental comfort for the population and to inspect and evaluate the situation of urban afforestation in Brazilian cities.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-23T13:51:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Samira Murelli de Souza.pdf: 4409266 bytes, checksum: fcbc1f5b4affeaa6b17b0e7f54a21f13 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-07-15 / Taking the set of intra-urban vegetation as a factor to be considered in the environmental quality of a city, this study aims analyzing qualitative and quantitatively the vegetation of the city of Vitoria-ES. Initially was obtained the mapping of 17 classes of vegetation, from image interpretation techniques and scanning, on a scale of 1:1,500 using the computer application ArcGIS 10, which allowed the analysis of the distribution of classes by the urban mesh, as well as calculations of percentages and indexes of vegetation coverage, open spaces and green areas, per inhabitant. Were found 46,504 vegetation areas, equivalent to a total of 1393.38 ha, representing 14.98% of the study area. For all indexes were found very low values when correlated to indexes proposed by other authors and recommended by the Urban Afforestation Brazilian Society (15 m²/inhabitant), pointing out that the configuration of the vegetation is poorly distributed, favoring the regions finest, while there is a shortage in the neighborhoods more peripherals. Next, were analyzed the benefits of the vegetation using the relation between vegetation and the behavior of varying temperature and relative humidity throughout the day, at three sites with different environmental conditions, being they the Moscoso Park (Center), the Square Philogomiro Lannes (Jardim da Penha) and a forest fragment on the campus of UFES (Goiabeiras). The results of this analysis showed that, in the most wooded location, with less spaces built and paved, there is a strong influence on the alleviation of the air temperature and increase of the humidity. Finally, was prepared a spatialization map of annual average temperature the air of Vitoria, obtained by means of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) and equation Multiple regression adjusted. It was proven from the map that the Massif Central, place of higher altitude and greater forest fragment that comprises the city of Vitoria, shows up to 2 ° C below the annual average temperature across the city, estimated between 24.5 to 25 °C / Tomando-se o conjunto da vegetação intraurbana como um dos fatores a ser considerado na qualidade ambiental de uma cidade, este trabalho tem por finalidade, analisar qualitativa e quantitativamente a vegetação da cidade de Vitória-ES. Inicialmente foi obtido o mapeamento de 17 classes de vegetação, a partir de técnicas de fotointerpretação e digitalização, na escala de 1:1.500, utilizando o aplicativo computacional ArcGIS 10, o que possibilitou a análise da distribuição das classes pela malha urbana, bem como os cálculos das porcentagens e índices de cobertura vegetal, espaços livres e áreas verdes, por habitante. Foram encontradas 46.504 áreas de vegetação, equivalente a um total de 1.393,38 ha, representando 14,98% da área de estudo. Para todos os índices foram constatados valores bastante baixos quando correlacionados a índices propostos por outros autores e ao recomendado pela Sociedade Brasileira de Arborização Urbana (15 m²/habitante), mostrando ainda que a configuração da vegetação é mal distribuída, favorecendo as regiões mais nobres, enquanto há carência nos bairros mais periféricos. Em seguida, foram analisados os benefícios da vegetação, por meio da relação entre a vegetação e o comportamento das variáveis temperatura e umidade relativa do ar, ao longo do dia, em três locais com diferentes condições ambientais, sendo eles o Parque Moscoso (Centro), a Praça Philogomiro Lannes (Jardim da Penha) e um fragmento florestal no campus da UFES (Goiabeiras). Os resultados desta análise comprovaram que, nos locais mais arborizados, com menos espaços construídos e pavimentados, há forte influência na amenização da temperatura do ar e no aumento da umidade. Por último, foi elaborado o mapa de espacialização da temperatura média anual do ar de Vitória, obtido por meio de modelo digital de elevação (MDE) SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) e equação de regressão múltipla ajustada. Ficou comprovado, a partir do mapa, que o Maciço Central, local de maior altitude e maior fragmento florestal urbano que compõe a cidade de Vitória, apresenta até 2º C abaixo da temperatura média anual de toda a cidade, estimada entre 24,5 a 25° C

Concilier patrimoine et amélioration de la performance énergétique du bâti ancien est un défi pour de nombreux centres historiques. La Communauté d’Agglomération du Grand Cahors, qui finance ce travail de thèse à travers une convention CIFRE, a souhaité s’attaquer à cette problématique en valorisant des isolants bio-sourcés. Le choix du matériau et du système d’isolation sont essentiels car ils influencent à la fois la performance hygrothermique de la paroi, la qualité de l’air intérieur, le coût et l’empreinte carbone de la rénovation. Dans cette étude, nous nous sommes focalisé sur la performance hygrothermique de la paroi afin d’assurer que la mise en place d’une isolation par l’intérieur ne soit pas source de dégradations futures de la paroi. Pour cela, nous avons confronté différents outils et méthodes tels que la caractérisation physique des matériaux, une instrumentation in-situ dans deux appartements du centre ancien de Cahors et des simulations hygrothermiques alliant différents outils numériques. / Improving the energy efficiency of buildings is essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate against climate change. Historic dwellings represent a large part of the French building stock that needs to be refurbished. In the city center of Cahors, France, the old medieval dwellings are considered as valuable cultural heritage and internal insulation is often the only insulation technique that can be used when the architectural value of the exterior façade is to be preserved. This PhD thesis, funded by a CIFRE agreement with the Communauté d’Agglomération du Grand Cahors, studied the suitability of bio-based materials for the internal insulation of historical dwellings in urban area. The selection of the insulation material and the system is crucial because of its impact on the hygrothermal performance of the wall, the indoor air quality, the financial cost, and the carbon footprint of the refurbishment solution. In this study we focused on the hygrothermal performance of the walls to provide a reliable risk assessment in order to avoid hygrothermal failure. Due to the complexity of the problem and the lack of needed data, we ran a multi-scale study including both experimental (laboratory characterisation and building monitoring) and numerical modelling methods.

A influência benéfica de áreas verdes no conforto humano em áreas urbanas tem sido reconhecida por estudos de diferentes campos do conhecimento. A fim de verificar a relação existente do conforto humano com métricas de cobertura arbórea na cidade de Piracicaba/SP, foram dispostos 43 registradores higrotérmicos microprocessados durante 40 dias de coleta tanto na estação chuvosa e seca dos anos de (2015-2016), bem como uma estação meteorológica móvel, da marca Davis Vantage Vu, de modo a obter as variáveis de conforto humano relacionadas com a sensação térmica relatada pelos residentes. Para tanto, foram utilizados índices de avaliação de conforto térmico (UTCI - Universal Thermal Comfort Index) e (PET- Physiologically Equivalent Temperature) obtidos por meio do modelo RayMan Pro. Questionários aplicados aos residentes das áreas de estudo possibilitaram verificar se os resultados obtidos por meio dos índices UTCI e PET correspondiam à real sensação de conforto térmico relatada pelos entrevistados. O tecido urbano foi caracterizado por meio de classificação supervisionada realizada pelo software MultiSpec feita a partir de imagem multiespectral de alta resolução do satélite WorldView 2 no ano de 2011 para a cidade de Piracicaba/SP. Buffers (áreas de influências dos pontos analisados) de 10, 20 e 500 metros foram gerados ao redor dos pontos de estudo pelo software Quantum Gis, v. 2.4, possibilitando correlacionar a porcentagem de cobertura com os dados microclimáticos obtidos com o objetivo de se obter modelos estatísticos que conseguissem predizer o quanto de cobertura arbórea seria necessária para a diminuição de uma dada temperatura média urbana. Foram obtidos valores de Índice de Floresta Urbana (IFU) para os bairros analisados. As estações Davis Vantage Vu foi calibrada com a da ESALQ/USP no intuito de que os dados climáticos tivessem maior veracidade e estivessem condizentes com a sensação térmica relatada pelos entrevistados; além disso, foram feitos ajustes dos dias de coleta na tentativa de padronizá-los. Dentre os resultados obtidos, os valores de IFUs corresponderam aos bairros mais confortáveis. Verificou-se, também, maior correlação dos dados microclimáticos dos 43 pontos com o uso e ocupação do solo para buffers de 20 metros na estação chuvosa e buffers de 500 metros na estação seca. Sendo assim, modelos estatísticos serviram para afirmar que aproximadamente 57% (R2 = 0,57) do valor da temperatura média urbana foi explicado pela quantidade de cobertura arbórea na estação chuvosa e 60% (R2 = 0,60) do valor da temperatura média urbana foi explicado pela quantidade de cobertura arbórea na estação seca. Como resultado precípuo desta pesquisa, os modelos gerados permitiram responder uma resposta ainda inexistente: a quantidade de árvores necessária para diminuir o calor excessivo em determinada área urbana, algo altamente desejável em tempos de alterações climáticas e com cidades em crise de abastecimento de água e energia elétrica. Constatou-se, portanto, que para diminuir 1°C da temperatura média urbana é necessário acrescentar 14,31% de cobertura arbórea na estação seca e 27,70% na estação chuvosa no município de Piracicaba/SP. Como avanço nesta pesquisa e inédito para a cidade, os modelos estatísticos permitem ser adotados por outras cidades com a finalidade de proporcionar maior conforto ambiental urbano para a população e inspecionar e avaliar a situação da arborização urbana nas cidades brasileiras. / The beneficial influence of green areas on human comfort in urban areas has been recognized by studies from different fields of knowledge. In order to verify the existing relationship of human comfort with tree cover metrics in the city of Piracicaba/SP, 43 microprocessed hygrothermal registers were arranged during 40 days of collection in both rainy and dry season of the years 2015-2016, as well as a mobile weather station of the Davis Vantage Vu brand, in order to obtain the human comfort variables related to the thermal sensation reported by residents. The thermal comfort index (UTCI) and PET (Physiologically Equivalent Temperature) values were obtained using the RayMan Pro model. Questionnaires applied to the residents of the study areas made it possible to verify if the results obtained through the UTCI and PET index corresponded to the real sensation of thermal comfort reported by the interviewees. The urban area was characterized by supervised classification performed by MultiSpec software made from a high-resolution multispectral image of WorldView 2 satellite in 2011 for the city of Piracicaba/SP. Buffers (areas of influence of the analyzed points) of 10, 20 and 500 meters were generated around the points of study by Quantum Gis software, v. 2.4, making it possible to correlate the percentage of coverage with the microclimatic data, obtained with the objective of make statistical models that could predict how much tree cover would be necessary for the decrease of a given urban temperature average. Urban Forest Index (IFU) values were obtained for the neighborhoods analyzed. The Davis Vantage Vu stations were calibrated with ESALQ/USP stations in order to make the climate data more accurate and consistent with the thermal sensation reported by the interviewees; In addition, adjustments of collection days were made in an attempt to standardize them. Among the results obtained, IFU values corresponded to the most comfortable neighborhoods. It was also verified a higher correlation of the microclimatic data of the 43 points with the use and occupation of the soil for buffers of 20 meters in the rainy season and buffers of 500 meters in the dry season. Thus, statistical models served to assert that approximately 57% (R² = 0.57) of the mean urban temperature was explained by the amount of tree cover in the rainy season and 60% (R² = 0.60) of the average temperature was explained by the amount of tree cover in the dry season. As a result of this research, the models generated allowed to respond to a still non-existent response: the amount of trees needed to reduce excessive heat in a given urban area, something highly desirable in times of climate change and with cities in crisis of water and energy supply power. It was verified, therefore, that to reduce 1°C of the urban average temperature it is necessary to add 14.31% of tree cover in the dry season and 27.70% in the rainy season in the city of Piracicaba/SP. As an advance in this research and unprecedented for the city, the statistical models allow adoption by other cities with the purpose of providing greater urban environmental comfort for the population and to inspect and evaluate the situation of urban afforestation in Brazilian cities.

En viabilité hivernale, la prévision de l’état de surface des infrastructures s’avère indispensable, et permet une anticipation, une meilleure coordination et une efficacité d’intervention des services d’exploitation. La majorité des pays dispose de modèles de prévision de la température de surface d'infrastructures et des routes en particulier (TSR). La complexité de ces outils d’aide à la décision est croissante, pour servir au mieux les usagers et l’exploitant. Le microclimat urbain influence le bilan énergétique de surface selon différents processus : radiatifs, aérodynamiques et hydrologiques. Néanmoins, d’autres processus physiques anthropiques influencent cette TSR, tel que le trafic. Des travaux ont été menés par le passé concernant l’apport énergétique du trafic dans le bilan thermique de la ville. Celui-ci a fait l’objet d’études sur les périodes estivales et les îlots de chaleur urbains associés. Cependant, dans les cas de dégradations des conditions hivernales de circulation, ces apports énergétiques ont été intégrés de façon marginale dans la modélisation des paramètres de surface de la route. L’absence de cette contribution du trafic dans la modélisation du bilan énergétique de surface explique, dans une certaine limite, la prévision imparfaite de l’état de surface de la route. La bibliographie recense plusieurs études conduites afin d’identifier et de quantifier ces effets du trafic. Elles n'ont pas ou peu traité la perte ou le gain d'énergie causé par le passage des véhicules sur le bilan énergétique de surface, ou sur la modélisation de la TSR. Dans la présente étude, deux approches ont été proposées pour paramétrer le trafic dans le modèle numérique Town Energy Balance (TEB), l'une globale et la seconde détaillée. Leur analyse comparée indique que la seconde a significativement amélioré les résultats de la modélisation de la TSR. Les apports thermiques du trafic ont augmenté la TSR de 2 à 4°C pour la rapprocher des mesures expérimentales (écart de 0.5 à 1°C en moyenne). Elle est le résultat de l’effet cumulatif des différents processus physiques associés au trafic, et varie en fonction de ses paramètres (densité, vitesse de circulation, fluidité, etc.). Une étude de sensibilité a été menée afin d’apprécier les processus physiques responsables de l’amélioration de la TSR. Les résultats indiquent que l’effet turbulent, la densité de flux radiatif ainsi que la densité de flux due aux frottements des pneumatiques contribuent le plus à l'augmentation la TSR. Néanmoins la contribution énergétique de chacun de ces processus dépend à la fois des paramètres du trafic et des conditions météorologiques. Cette étude a présenté également une analyse préliminaire de l’influence de la lame d’eau présente en surface sur la TSR. Cette dernière décroit en fonction de l’épaisseur de la lame d’eau. Les facteurs anthropiques tels que le trafic et l’adjonction de fondants routiers sur la lame d’eau présente en surface sont décrits et discutés, et une paramétrisation proposée en perspectives / In winter maintenance, forecasting the infrastructure surface status is mandatory, to allow anticipation, better coordination and efficiency of services. The majority of countries have forecast models of the infrastructure surface temperature and especially roads one (RST). The complexity of these decision tools is growing, to best serve the users and managers. The urban microclimate influences the surface energy balance according to various processes: radiative, aerodynamic and hydrologic. However, other anthropogenic physical processes influence this RST, such as traffic. Studies have been carried out in the past about the traffic heat input in the town heat balance. These were conducted on the summer periods and associated urban heat islands. However, in case of traffic in adverse winter conditions, these energy contributions were marginally integrated into the modeling of the road surface parameters. The absence of this traffic's contribution in the surface energy balance modeling explains, to a given limit, the imperfect forecasting of road surface status. The literature identifies several studies conducted to identify and to quantify these effects of traffic. They have insufficiently or not treated the loss or gain on energy caused by circulating vehicles on the surface energy balance, or on modeling the RST. In this study, two approaches have been proposed to parameterize the traffic in the Town Energy Balance (TEB) numerical model, this first one being overall and the second one detailed. Their comparative analysis indicates that the second significantly improved the results of the RST modeling. The traffic heat inputs increased RST by 2 to 4°C, results being then closer to experimental measurements (average difference of 0.5 to 1°C). It is the result of the cumulative effect of the various traffic physical processes, and varies according to its parameters (density, vehicle velocity, fluidity, etc.). A sensitivity analysis was conducted to assess the physical processes responsible for the improvement of the RST. The results indicate that the turbulent effect, the radiative heat flux and flux density due to tires friction represent the greatest contribution to RST increase. Nevertheless the energy contribution of each of these processes depends both traffic parameters and weather conditions. This study also presented a preliminary analysis of the influence of a water layer over the surface on the RST. The latter decreases as a function of the thickness of the water layer. Anthropogenic factors such as traffic and the addition of de-icing products into the water layer present on the surface are described and discussed, and a parameterization proposed as a perspective

This practicum is a reference for vertical gardeners in cold climates. Winnipeg, Manitoba is explored, however findings may be applied to other cities in similar climates. First, the history of vertical gardening is discussed, then the types of vertical gardens currently on the market are described. These can be classified into two categories: soil bearing or non-soil bearing. Most designs are modular pre-planted systems that can be attached to any wall, as long as it satisfies the structural requirements recommended by the manufacturer. The benefits of vertical gardening have been shown to be rather extensive, covering a wide range of areas. Aesthetic improvement, reduction of the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect, improvement of air quality, stormwater absorption, noise reduction, native habitat integration, reduction of heating and cooling costs for buildings, food production, marketing, and biophilia are all benefits explored in detail. Difficulties associated with vertical gardening are discussed, specifically the lack of knowledge and awareness of vertical gardens, lack of empirical evidence (or missing details in existing research), overall cost and lack of financial incentives, lack of industry codes, and various associated risks. Design framework exists within microclimate conditions unique to vertical gardens, as well as neighbourhood and regional (micro)climates. Theories relating to the study of green walls covered include the human ecosystem model, urban reconciliation ecology, habitat templating, the urban cliff hypothesis, and wall ecology. Suitable habitat templates identified for vertical gardens in Winnipeg are cliffs, sand dunes, alvars, mixed grass prairie and prairie potholes. Design parameters to be followed for vertical garden design in Winnipeg are to ensure that lightweight materials are used, to provide insulation to protect plants from sudden temperature changes, to choose plants that grow in the region and are adapted to grow in areas with limited soil, increased wind, varying degrees of sunlight (depending on orientation), and increased pollution and salt spray depending on location. / October 2015