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The distribution of trees across urban areas of the UK has been shown to be uneven, with lower density residential areas containing many more trees and much higher tree cover than areas of higher density housing. However, in Greater Manchester, tree number within high density housing areas also varies substantially. This thesis sought to explore the reasons for this variation in tree cover, whether tree cover should be increased and if so, how. The research investigated a potential cause for the variation in number of trees and tree cover within high density housing areas – housing type – for the study area of western Greater Manchester. Eleven different types of high density housing were categorised and all high density housing within the study area was classified as one of these types. Within these housing types, the amount of tree cover was determined, along with the proportions of other surface types. The land uses where the trees were growing were also determined. Finally, the potential increases in tree cover were also calculated for each housing type by a simulated planting technique. Maximum surface temperatures and rainfall runoff were calculated using computer models, for both existing and potential tree cover in each housing type. It was found that urban tree cover varies from 1.6% in pre 1919 terraced housing that opens directly onto the road to 14.8% in 1960s walkway-style housing. Tree cover could theoretically be increased by at least 5% in all housing types, reducing maximum surface temperatures by at least 1°C. In housing types with less than 4% existing tree cover, maximum surface temperatures could be reduced by up to 4.5°C. The views of residents were determined using a postal questionnaire about urban trees sent to residents of 4 different types of street environment. Residents of all street types surveyed were very positive about urban trees; their attitudes were not affected by whether there are trees in their street or not. The vast majority of respondents considered trees important to their quality of life, and that cost to the council should not prevent tree planting. The views and practices around urban trees and greening by practitioners were determined by running a workshop and their recommendations to increase tree cover are presented. These include changes in funding to include money for tree maintenance after planting, the importance of a full tree inventory and innovative ways to raise funding for trees. The effectiveness of a community greening scheme at increasing tree cover was compared with two regeneration schemes. The community tree planting scheme was found to deliver tree planting much closer to the potential than regeneration schemes.

Urban trees are crucial to a healthy environment. The benefits range from good air quality to storm water management and public health. The aim of this thesis was to study urban trees in Umeå city. Umeå is in a process of densification and has a vision to increase in population to 200 000 by the year 2050. During densification, trees are often removed to make space for buildings and streets. To keep track of the trees in an urban area, an analysis of the share of canopy cover can be done. For this thesis, the city enter in Umeå has been analyzed to find out the share of trees, vegetation, imposturous ground, buildings, and water that makes up the land cover. This through a canopy cover analysis using the software i-Tree Canopy. The results show that the overall share of urban trees has decreased since 2007 and the share of buildings have increased, an evident effect of densification. In addition to analyzing canopy cover, the change in amount and location of municipally owned trees has also been analyzed. This analysis presented a contradictory view of urban trees, where the number of trees has increased. A reason for this could be that while the municipality has programs in place to plant and manage trees, privately owned trees are not being monitored. There are obstacles with the aim to increase the number of urban trees in a dense city. The increasing amount of imposturous ground and building makes the environment hard for trees to thrive in. The roots have not enough space to grow, and the trees are prone to damages. This results in trees that does not live very long before they have to be removed and replaced, which has negative effect on the environment. Preserving trees with large canopies and at the same time planting new ones are important parts in keeping a sustainable urban area. Analyzing canopy cover and the change over time is a way to learn and prepare for future urban planning in Umeå.

Urban areas are known to have different climatic conditions than their rural counterparts including higher temperatures, greater wind speeds, and increased precipitation otherwise known as urban heat islands, urban wind, and urban precipitation. These phenomena are all caused by the design and form of the city. Large amounts of impervious surface area, obtrusive buildings, and a lack of vegetation in the urban landscape all contribute to these problems. Landscape architects have the potential to mitigate urban heat islands, urban wind, and urban precipitation by understanding what causes these phenomena and knowing a few key principles by which to mitigate them. Parking lots can cover up to half of the land area in cities and offer a great opportunity to correct urban climate problems. This thesis looks at current United States parking lot ordinances to determine if and how well principles of designing with climate have been incorporated. Guidelines are then given to help in the construction of a parking lot ordinance that aims to ameliorate the city's mesoclimate. A design is then created that shows how these parking lot guidelines could be incorporated into a functional, aesthetically pleasing parking lot. / Master of Landscape Architecture

Der bereits stattfindende Klimawandel mit ansteigenden Temperaturen, einer Zunahme von Trockenperioden und Hitzewellen während der Vegetationsperiode wird das Risiko von Trockenstress für Bäume und Sträucher erheblich erhöhen. Eine der Herausforderungen ist daher die erfolgreiche Etablierung von gesunden, langlebigen und an die spezifischen urbanen Standorte adaptierten Bäume, um die ökologischen und ökonomischen Wohlfahrtswirkungen städtischen Grüns auch in Zukunft zu gewährleisten. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es deshalb, sowohl die Eignung einiger häufig verwendeter Straßenbaumarten für stark versiegelte Straßenbaumstandorte als auch deren Toleranz gegenüber Trockenstress am Beispiel von Dresden zu identifizieren. Die Arbeit verfolgt einen dendrochronologischen und einen physiologischen Ansatz. Im dendrochronologischen Teil der Arbeit wurden die Jahrringzeitreihen von 16 Straßenbaum-Chronologien, 3 Einzelbaum-Chronologien im Stadtgebiet von Dresden und 4 Chronologien eines trockenen Waldstandortes in einem Naturschutzgebiet sowie 2 Chronologien frischer Waldstandorte analysiert. Auf Basis der trendbereinigten Zuwachszeitreihen wurden Klima-Zuwachs-Relationen, moving correlations, Weiserjahranalysen und superposed epoch analyses (SEA) durchgeführt. Im physiologischen Teil der Arbeit wurde in den Sommermonaten der Jahre 2009 und 2010 auf vier urbanen Straßenbaumstandorten der lichtgesättigte Gasaustausch von sechs Baumarten und das Blattwasserpotential von vier Baumarten ermittelt. Für die Messperioden und in ausgewählten Trockenperioden wurde die Wassernutzungseffizienz der Baumarten verglichen. Auf urbanen Straßenbaumstandorten reagieren die Arten Acer platanoides, Acer pseudoplatanus und Fagus sylvatica stark sensitiv auf Trockenheit. Im Gegensatz dazu können die Arten Platanus x hispanica, Quercus robur subsp. sessiliflora und Quercus rubra als weniger trockenheitsempfindlich betrachtet werden. Die dendrochronologischen und physiologischen Ergebnisse erlauben für Tilia cordata Mill., Tilia platyphyllos und Pyrus communis eine Einordnung in eine mittlere Eignung für versiegelte Flächen. Aus den dendrochronologischen und physiologischen Ergebnissen dieser Untersuchung lässt sich schließen, dass sich die höheren Temperaturen und die zunehmenden Trockenperioden für alle untersuchten Arten negativ auswirken können. Dennoch zeigen die Baumarten Platanus x hispanica, Quercus robur subsp. sessiliflora und Quercus rubra, dass sie den sich verändernden Klimabedingungen auf stark versiegelten urbanen Standorten gut widerstehen können und auch in Zukunft eine hohe Vitalität beibehalten werden.

abstract: Rapid urbanization and population growth occurring in the cities of South Western United States have led to significant modifications in its environment at local and regional scales. Both local and regional climate changes are expected to have massive impacts on the hydrology of Colorado River Basin (CRB), thereby accentuating the need of study of hydro-climatic impacts on water resource management in this region. This thesis is devoted to understanding the impact of land use and land cover (LULC) changes on the local and regional hydroclimate, with the goal to address urban planning issues and provide guidance for sustainable development. In this study, three densely populated urban areas, viz. Phoenix, Las Vegas and Denver in the CRB are selected to capture the various dimensions of the impacts of land use changes on the regional hydroclimate in the entire CRB. Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model, incorporating the latest urban modeling system, is adopted for regional climate modeling. Two major types of urban LULC changes are studied in this Thesis: (1) incorporation of urban trees with their radiative cooling effect, tested in Phoenix metropolitan, and (2) projected urban expansion in 2100 obtained from Integrated Climate and Land Use Scenarios (ICLUS) developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency for all three cities. The results demonstrated prominent nocturnal cooling effect of due to radiative shading effect of the urban trees for Phoenix reducing urban surface and air temperature by about 2~9 °C and 1~5 °C respectively and increasing relative humidity by 10~20% during an mean diurnal cycle. The simulations of urban growth in CRB demonstratedii nocturnal warming of about 0.36 °C, 1.07 °C, and 0.94 °C 2m-air temperature and comparatively insignificant change in daytime temperature, with the thermal environment of Denver being the most sensitive the urban growth. The urban hydroclimatic study carried out in the thesis assists in identifying both context specific and generalizable relationships, patterns among the cities, and is expected to facilitate urban planning and management in local (cities) and regional scales. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering 2017

Submitted by CAMILA JUNQUEIRA FERNANDES null (milajf@hotmail.com) on 2016-08-03T01:11:28Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Camila Junqueira.pdf: 2970872 bytes, checksum: 880535cebdd4455cc7980c3226a08268 (MD5) / Rejected by Ana Paula Grisoto (grisotoana@reitoria.unesp.br), reason: Solicitamos que realize uma nova submissão seguindo a orientação abaixo: O arquivo submetido não contém o certificado de aprovação. A versão submetida por você é considerada a versão final da dissertação/tese, portanto não poderá ocorrer qualquer alteração em seu conteúdo após a aprovação. Corrija esta informação e realize uma nova submissão contendo o arquivo correto. Agradecemos a compreensão. on 2016-08-04T20:07:59Z (GMT) / Submitted by CAMILA JUNQUEIRA FERNANDES null (milajf@hotmail.com) on 2016-08-09T17:16:39Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação Camila Junqueira.pdf: 2970872 bytes, checksum: 880535cebdd4455cc7980c3226a08268 (MD5) Certificado de aprovação.pdf: 142260 bytes, checksum: a09e0657b16a5f36405840d687e305ba (MD5) / Rejected by Ana Paula Grisoto (grisotoana@reitoria.unesp.br), reason: Solicitamos que realize uma nova submissão seguindo as orientações abaixo: Foram submetidos 2 arquivos PDF’s, apenas 1 arquivo deve ser submetido. O arquivo PDF não deve estar protegido e a dissertação/tese deve estar em um único arquivo, inclusive folha de aprovação, os apêndices e anexos, se houver. Corrija estas informações e realize uma nova submissão contendo o arquivo correto. Agradecemos a compreensão. on 2016-08-10T14:48:49Z (GMT) / Submitted by CAMILA JUNQUEIRA FERNANDES null (milajf@hotmail.com) on 2016-08-11T13:13:28Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Camila Junqueira Fernandes.pdf: 3002676 bytes, checksum: 74755d8f440181ee60fa465ee533879a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Paula Grisoto (grisotoana@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-08-11T18:03:03Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 fernandes_cj_me_jabo.pdf: 3002676 bytes, checksum: 74755d8f440181ee60fa465ee533879a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-11T18:03:03Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 fernandes_cj_me_jabo.pdf: 3002676 bytes, checksum: 74755d8f440181ee60fa465ee533879a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-06-30 / O estudo da flora existente nas cidades é de suma importância do ponto de vista ecológico e sustentável, assim como ser premissa para ações que proporcionem maior segurança, conforto e bem-estar para população. Visando o conhecimento da vegetação arbórea, para fins de orientação do manejo e conservação dessa área, foi realizada uma análise da composição, diversidade e qualidade da flora arbórea (considerando árvores e palmeiras) existente na praça Rui Barbosa, município de São José do Rio Preto, SP e, também, análise quali-quantitativa dos elementos arquitetônicos e vegetais, bem como, pesquisa de opinião visando otimizar o uso e o conforto nesta praça. Esta praça é considerada a principal pela localização, história e uso, e encontra-se na região central, ao lado da Catedral. É uma área onde normalmente ocorrem várias manifestações culturais, sociais, políticas e também serviços de saúde pública. Os indivíduos arbóreos presentes na praça foram contados, identificados e avaliados a altura e circunferência do tronco à altura do peito; foram determinados descritores fitossociológicos, índice de Shannon-Weaver e observados aspectos qualitativos. A composição florística arbórea da praça Rui Barbosa, no município de São José do Rio Preto, SP, constitui-se de 15 famílias botânicas, composta por 25 gêneros e 28 espécies, num total de 103 indivíduos, entre árvores e palmeiras. A espécie de maior representatividade foi Dypsis lutescens (areca-bambu), com frequência de 20,39%, seguida de Caesalpinia pluviosa (sibipiruna), com frequência 18,45%, enquanto que as demais não ultrapassaram 10%. O índice de Shannon-Weaver, indicador de diversidade, foi de 2,77, mostrando que a praça apresenta grande diversidade florística. A maioria (72,8%) dos indivíduos encontram-se em estado regular ou péssimo; 66,02% apresentaram algum sintoma de fungo; 12,62% apresentam problemas decorrentes do ataque de cupins; musgos, liquens e epífitas estão presentes em 73,78 % dos indivíduos da praça. Baseado na análise quali-quantitativa dos elementos arquitetônicos, conclui-se que a praça Rui Barbosa, município de São José do Rio Preto, SP, se encontra em bom estado, passou por reformas recentemente e consegue atender a necessidade de grande parte de seus frequentadores. Quando considera-se toda a vegetação, incluindo as plantas arbustivas e herbáceas, a composição florística da praça passa a ser constituída de 24 famílias botânicas, composta por 38 gêneros e 41 espécies, num total de 174 indivíduos; a espécie de maior ocorrência foi Dypsis lutescens (areca-bambu), com frequência de 12,07%, seguida de Viburnum sp (viburno), com frequência de 11,49% e Caesalpinia peltophoroides (sibipiruna), com frequência de 10,92%,enquanto que as demais não ultrapassaram 10%. Os canteiros da praça precisam de uma revitalização e uma composição com novas plantas e cuidados. Com a pesquisa de opinião conclui-se que o local tem a função de promover bem-estar a diferentes grupos de pessoas, preferencialmente do sexo masculino, de 41 a 60 anos, que a usam para descanso e encontro com amigos. / The study of existing flora in cities is very important ecological and sustainable point of view, as well as being the premise for actions that provide greater safety, comfort and well-being for the population. Seeking knowledge of trees for the purpose of orientation of the management and conservation of this area, an analysis of the composition was performed, diversity and quality of the arboreal flora (considering trees and palms) on the Rui Barbosa Square, the city of São José do Rio Preto, SP and also qualitative and quantitative analysis of the architectural and vegetal elements, as well as opinion research to optimize the use and comfort in this square. This square is considered the main by the location, history and use, and is in the central region, next to the Cathedral. It is an area where typically occur several cultural events, social, political and also public health services. The arboreal individuals present in the square were counted, identified and assessed the height and circumference of the trunk at breast height; they were determined Phytosociological descriptors, Shannon-Weaver index and observed qualitative aspects. The floristic composition of Rui Barbosa Square, in the city of São José do Rio Preto, SP, consists of 15 botanical families, consisting of 25 genera and 28 species, a total of 103 individuals, among trees and palms. The species most representative was Dypsis lutescens (Areca-bambu), with a frequency of 20.39%, followed by Caesalpinia rainiest (Sibipiruna) often 18.45%, while the other did not exceed 10%. The index of Shannon-Weaver diversity index, was 2.77, showing that the square has great floristic diversity. Most (72.8%) individuals are in good or bad shape; 66.02% had some fungus symptom; 12.62% have problems arising from termite attack; mosses, lichens and epiphytes are present in 73.78% of the subjects of the square. With the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the architectural elements, it is concluded that the site is in good condition, it has undergone renovations recently and can meet the needs of most of its regulars, has the function of promoting well-being to different groups people, preferably male, 41-60 years old, who use it to rest and meeting with friends.

The process of urbanization dramatically alters the landscape which can have negative effects on the environment, and thereby, places the inhabitants and the city itself at risk. The development of an urban heat island can have severe health implications for city inhabitants during prolonged heat waves. Urbanisation also alters hydrological processes, which can place urban areas at a greater threat of surface flooding during heavy rainfall. As cities are continuing to expand, and as climate change proceeds, these problems are only likely to be exacerbated and there is a need to find ways to reduce these negative effects.This thesis builds upon previous modelling work on the effect of greenspace on the climate and hydrology of Manchester, U.K. The aims were to test the predictions of this model by investigating the effect of trees and grass in reducing surface temperatures and rainfall runoff, and further investigate their effects on air and globe temperatures. Surface, globe, and air temperatures were measured on grass and concrete areas in full sun and tree shade, both under large tree canopies, and below those of a range of street tree species. The rainfall runoff from experimental plots covered in asphalt, asphalt plus a tree and grass, was also investigated. Grass reduced surface temperatures in full sun by up to 24°C, in good agreement with previous models, but permanent tree shade reduced concrete temperatures by almost as much, up to 19°C. Tree shade also reduced globe temperatures by up to 7°C, a reduction which can improve human comfort on hot day. These results indicate that both forms of vegetation will act regionally, reducing the urban heat island effect, but that trees can dramatically improve the local environmental conditions. Street trees reduced surface and globe temperatures by rather less, 12°C and 4°C respectively, though trees with a higher leaf area index provided greater cooling. Because of advection neither trees nor small areas of grass had an effect on local air temperatures.Grass was most effective vegetation type at preventing rainfall runoff, reducing runoff coefficients of the plots from around 60% on asphalt to near zero. However, tree units also reduced the runoff coefficient to around 25%, despite having a canopy that covered only a small proportion of the plot, suggesting that much of the rainfall must have infiltrated into the planting hole. These reductions are higher than predicted by previous modelling, highlighting the importance of greenspace on the hydrology of the urban environment.The results suggest that trees and grass provide complementary environmental benefits in cities, and that the benefits of trees strongly depend on species and planting conditions

The urban heat island (UHI) is a problem that is likely to be exacerbated by ongoing climate change, but it is often claimed that urban trees can mitigate it and hence adapt our cities to climate change. Many researchers have attempted to quantify the cooling effects of trees using modelling approaches. However, the major disadvantage of most of the models is that they consider all vegetation to act as a single saturated layer and that their effect is merely proportional to its surface cover. Therefore, they fail to take into account potential differences between tree species and the effect of different environmental and growing conditions. To address this issue four different studies were conducted in Manchester, UK from February, 2010 to December, 2012. The studies compared the growth and cooling abilities of several commonly planted urban tree species, and investigated a single species planted in a range of growing conditions: investigating the effect of urban soil compaction and aeration and also the effect of urbanization and simulated climate change in the rooting zone. Overall, our studies showed that species selection and growing conditions can substantially alter the evapotranspirational cooling provided by urban trees. Fast growing species such as Pyrus calleryana, with their dense and wide canopy can provide cooling up to 2.2 kW tree-1, 3-4 times that of Sorbus arnoldiana, which have a thinner and narrower canopy and a moderate growth rate. P. calleryana was also investigated under three contrasting growth conditions: in cut-out pits in pavements; in grass verges; and in pits filled with Amsterdam soil. Trees in the less compacted Amsterdam soil had grown almost twice as fast as those in pavements and also had better leaf physiological performance. Together with a longer growing season, and better uptake of soil nutrients and moisture, trees grown in Amsterdam soil provided evapotranspirational cooling of up to 7kW, 5 times higher than those grown in pavements. Another experiment in which P. calleryana trees were planted in 3 standard planting techniques with non-compacted load bearing soils and with or without permeable slabs showed that optimum cooling is not only dependent on preventing soil compaction but also on ensuring that the covering materials are permeable to oxygen. Trees in the open pits provided up-to 1 kW of cooling, compared to around 350 and 650 W by the small and large covered pits respectively. Our final experiment showed that urbanization can increase tree growth by 20-30%; however, despite being under more water stressed conditions trees grown in simulated climate change plots had 40% higher sap flux density, and hence cooling potential. The study suggested that at least with P. calleryana, transpirational cooling benefit might be enhanced in places like Manchester with increased soil temperature in future, but potentially at the expense of photosynthesis and carbon gain. Together these studies show that evaporative cooling of trees depends strongly on both species and growing conditions. If incorporated into regional and local energy exchange models our results can help us to quantify the magnitude and effectiveness of greenspaces in the city in adapting them to climate change.

Der bereits stattfindende Klimawandel mit ansteigenden Temperaturen, einer Zunahme von Trockenperioden und Hitzewellen während der Vegetationsperiode wird das Risiko von Trockenstress für Bäume und Sträucher erheblich erhöhen. Eine der Herausforderungen ist daher die erfolgreiche Etablierung von gesunden, langlebigen und an die spezifischen urbanen Standorte adaptierten Bäume, um die ökologischen und ökonomischen Wohlfahrtswirkungen städtischen Grüns auch in Zukunft zu gewährleisten. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es deshalb, sowohl die Eignung einiger häufig verwendeter Straßenbaumarten für stark versiegelte Straßenbaumstandorte als auch deren Toleranz gegenüber Trockenstress am Beispiel von Dresden zu identifizieren. Die Arbeit verfolgt einen dendrochronologischen und einen physiologischen Ansatz. Im dendrochronologischen Teil der Arbeit wurden die Jahrringzeitreihen von 16 Straßenbaum-Chronologien, 3 Einzelbaum-Chronologien im Stadtgebiet von Dresden und 4 Chronologien eines trockenen Waldstandortes in einem Naturschutzgebiet sowie 2 Chronologien frischer Waldstandorte analysiert. Auf Basis der trendbereinigten Zuwachszeitreihen wurden Klima-Zuwachs-Relationen, moving correlations, Weiserjahranalysen und superposed epoch analyses (SEA) durchgeführt. Im physiologischen Teil der Arbeit wurde in den Sommermonaten der Jahre 2009 und 2010 auf vier urbanen Straßenbaumstandorten der lichtgesättigte Gasaustausch von sechs Baumarten und das Blattwasserpotential von vier Baumarten ermittelt. Für die Messperioden und in ausgewählten Trockenperioden wurde die Wassernutzungseffizienz der Baumarten verglichen. Auf urbanen Straßenbaumstandorten reagieren die Arten Acer platanoides, Acer pseudoplatanus und Fagus sylvatica stark sensitiv auf Trockenheit. Im Gegensatz dazu können die Arten Platanus x hispanica, Quercus robur subsp. sessiliflora und Quercus rubra als weniger trockenheitsempfindlich betrachtet werden. Die dendrochronologischen und physiologischen Ergebnisse erlauben für Tilia cordata Mill., Tilia platyphyllos und Pyrus communis eine Einordnung in eine mittlere Eignung für versiegelte Flächen. Aus den dendrochronologischen und physiologischen Ergebnissen dieser Untersuchung lässt sich schließen, dass sich die höheren Temperaturen und die zunehmenden Trockenperioden für alle untersuchten Arten negativ auswirken können. Dennoch zeigen die Baumarten Platanus x hispanica, Quercus robur subsp. sessiliflora und Quercus rubra, dass sie den sich verändernden Klimabedingungen auf stark versiegelten urbanen Standorten gut widerstehen können und auch in Zukunft eine hohe Vitalität beibehalten werden.