Background: Slow progress of labour (SPL) occurs in 3-37% of all labours. It constitutes the main cause of primary caesarean section (CS) and is associated with operative births, maternal and foetal morbidity, and a negative birthing experience. SPL is also the principal reason for the transfers of women from midwife-led units (MLUs) or their home, to hospitals. The current standard medical management of SPL, including intravenous administration of synthetic oxytocin and artificial rupture of membranes (ARM), has been increasingly questioned and the need for alternatives recommended. A midwifery approach to SPL represents a possible important alternative. However, contemporary literature shows a surprising dearth of research concerning midwives’ approaches to SPL. Birth centres appear ideal settings for exploring a midwifery approach to SPL, given the strong midwifery philosophy and the relevance of SPL reported in these contexts. Aim: To explore midwives’ approaches to SPL in birth centres, focusing in particular on midwives’ understanding of the phenomenon, diagnostic process, clinical management and decision-making. Methods: A qualitative multiple case study, underpinned by a critical realist perspective. Midwives’ approaches to SPL represented the ‘case’ of interest; an Italian alongside- (AMU) and an English freestanding- (FMU) midwifery units were purposively selected as case-sites. Data was collected between November 2012 and July 2013, after obtaining all necessary ethical approvals. An inductive reasoning, and triangulation logic characterised data collection. Multiple methods were adopted including individual semi-structured interviews, focus groups, observations and document reviews. Practising midwives, midwife managers and two lead obstetricians were included as participants after obtaining written informed consent. Data was analysed at two levels, within-case and cross-case, using a thematic analysis. Findings from the cross-case analysis supported the development of assertions and final conceptualisation regarding midwives’ approaches to SPL in birth centres. Findings: At the Italian site, midwives identified SPL as the problem of their care in the AMU. They perceived the process of recognition of this phenomenon as an engaging challenge and attempted to untangle the main cause amongst the many intertwined ones, in order to tailor their approach. Dealing with SPL represented a struggle; midwives adopted several different interventions and their decisions appeared enabled or constrained by numerous factors, especially the problematic relationship with the hospital staff. At the English site, SPL was not considered an issue, midwives were keen in looking at diagnostic and causal factors of SPL within a bigger picture. Midwives’ interventions aimed at giving women the best chance to overcome SPL and give birth in the FMU. The several influential factors were managed by many midwives through experience. Across cases, midwives’ understanding of SPL varied. SPL was acknowledged to result from a complex interaction of causes. Early labour was considered a critical stage for the development of SPL. The process of recognition of SPL appeared a dynamic one and aimed at reaching an objective diagnosis. Distinguishing whether SPL represented a physiological rest or arrest of labour progress represented an emerging dilemma. Midwives tailored interventions to single situations. Some interventions appeared to be fundamental to midwifery care, whilst others depended on various factors. Midwives’ relationships with all factors in the context appeared to be pivotal for both performing interventions and decision-making. Conclusion: This is the first case study exploring midwives’ approaches to SPL in birth centres, in both an English and an Italian context. This research outlines midwives’ approaches to SPL as a result of a complex and dynamic system. Midwives’ understanding, identification, clinical management of SPL and decision-making represents a multifaceted and stratified reality. The individual characteristics of the women, the birth attendants, the midwife, and colleagues, as well as the relationships occurring in this context, represent the main factors whose variable interactions may result in variable manifestations of the midwifery approach. On the basis of the findings of this research, recommendations are made for midwifery practice, education and research.

Pre-eclampsia affects about 5% of all pregnant women and is one of the most important pregnancy complications world-wide. Life threatening complications require an immediate medical management of pre-eclampsia. However, as the origin of this disease is still unexplained, diagnosis, treatment and management still pose a challenge. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the involvement of small metabolites and oxylipins in pre-eclampsia and the regulation of the vascular tone. A metabolomics analysis of maternal blood plasma enabled identification of a range of biomarkers. These were putatively identified as 12,13-epoxy-9-oxoODE, methionine sulfoxide, guanidoacetic acid, uric acid, p-cresol sulfate, hydroxyhexacosanoic acid as well as the bile acid isomers taurodeoxycholic acid, tauroursodeoxycholic acid and taurochenodeoxycholic acid. A targeted LC-MS/MS method was used to determine oxylipin levels in maternal plasma, fetal plasma, chorionic plate arteries and stem villi from healthy and preeclamptic subjects. Significantly differing oxylipin levels were found in maternal plasma, fetal plasma and chorionic plate arteries. Arachidonic acid, 5,6-DHET, 8-HETE, 11-HETE, 15-HETE, 9-oxoODE, 13-oxoODE were decreased and 13-HODE was increased in maternal blood plasma in late onset pre-eclampsia. In early onset pre-eclampsia 5-HETE was significantly increased in maternal plasma. In cord blood plasma, 9-oxoODE, 13-oxoODE, 9-HODE and 13-HODE levels significantly increased in late onset pre-eclampsia. In chorionic plate arteries, arachidonic acid, 14,15-DHET, 5-HETE and 15-HETE were increased in late onset pre-eclampsia. Gene expression studies were conducted to determine levels of CYP2J2, EPHX1, EPHX2, PPARA and PPARG in chorionic plate arteries. All genes were detected on RNA level in this tissue region and were stably expressed across healthy and preeclamptic subjects. Vascular effects of CYP P450 derived oxylipins were assessed in chorionic plate arteries and stem villous arteries. No effects were observed for the four EET (epoxyeicosatrienoic acid) isomers , four DHET (dihydroxyeicosatrienoic acids) isomers or 5-, 15- and 20-HETE (hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids), except for a weak dilating effect of 8,9-DHET on stem villous arteries. In addition to this, PPAR-alpha agonist Wy14643 and PPAR-gamma agonist ciglitazone were examined for effects in the placental vasculature. Potent dilating effects were demonstrated for both compounds in chorionic plate arteries and stem villous arteries. In conclusion, this thesis demonstrated that pre-eclampsia is characterised by complex changes in levels of small metabolites and oxylipins. The identified biomarkers provide new insights into ongoing pathophysiological processes in the pre-eclamptic syndrome. The physiological significance of changed oxylipin levels needs still to be determined. However, as oxylipins are known ligands of PPAR receptors, which were demonstrated to be expressed in the placenta, the PPAR signalling pathway is a promising target for future studies in pre-eclampsia.

Optimizing maternal health and improving reproductive outcomes are widely acknowledged as major challenges in the health care system. Care during the antenatal period has been the focus of improving maternal health and reproductive outcomes. Yet, evidences have shown that antenatal care alone is not enough. Initiating care before conception or preconception care could be potentially effective to further improve maternal health and reproductive outcomes. Preconception care encompasses a range of health promotion, risk assessment, preventative and curative interventions for women of reproductive age to reduce risks that potentially affect reproductive outcomes. It aims to provide prospective parents information and support with regards to preconception interventions that are beneficial for the parents and future children. Primary care providers are often being urged to provide preconception care as part of primary care services. In support of preconception interventions, there has been increasing evidences for such interventions. However, existing reviews or studies of preconception interventions have been limited by being risk specific, for example; focussing on folate supplementation or women with diabetes. Adding to this, interventions were reported mainly carried out in the secondary care settings. There is still paucity of evidence that comprehensively evaluate the impact of providing preconception care as a systematic approach involving multifactorial risk factors and, in particular, in primary care. Preconception care involved a range of risk assessment; assessment of genetic risk is no exception. The aim of preconception care for genetic risks is to allow women or prospective parents the opportunity to have informed reproductive decisions of future pregnancies. However, experience of offering preconception care in addressing genetic risks is yet less explored. This thesis specifically sought to evaluate the potential impact of preconception care involving assessment of reproductive genetic risk. Further, this thesis also aims to provide evidence for effectiveness of preconception interventions on multifactorial risk factors in the primary care settings. As primary care providers especially GPs are increasingly being recognised to provide such care, it was thus important to explore their views. For this, this thesis aimed to explore the opinions and attitudes of GPs in the United Kingdom towards providing preconception care that involved assessment of reproductive genetic risk in current general practice. This study took place within the Primary Care Trusts of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. The findings from this thesis are expected to help inform a strategy for the implementation of preconception assessment of reproductive genetic risk in the general practice in the United Kingdom. The aim of this thesis was achieved by carrying out three components of work. These components of work involve three domains that could assist in the implementation; the interventions; the settings; and exploring attitudes and opinions. 1. The first component involved carrying out a systematic review of literatures on the effectiveness of preconception care interventions in the primary care settings. 2. The second component involved carrying out a systematic review of literatures on the effectiveness of preconception assessment of reproductive genetic risk. 3. The third component involved a postal questionnaire survey of GPs practicing in the Nottinghamshire, Nottingham City, Derbyshire and Derby City Primary Care Trusts, exploring their attitudes and opinions. A new questionnaire was developed as the study instrument for this study. The first component of work has synthesized the evidence of the effectiveness of preconception interventions in the areas of maternal knowledge of pregnancy-related risks; self-efficacy and health locus of control; risk behaviour modification (for example, folate and alcohol consumption); adverse pregnancy outcomes (for example, congenital anomalies and preterm birth); and psychological consequences. The review has identified that both risk specific interventions or interventions involved multifactorial risks, both demonstrated significant improvement in maternal knowledge, self-efficacy and health locus of control. There was positive evidence for risk specific interventions in the areas involving risk behaviour modification. However, the effects for adverse pregnancy outcomes and psychological outcomes remained unclear. The second component of work sought to find evidence the effects of preconception assessment of reproductive genetic risk. The scope of literature search included family history and ancestry assessment, pre-carrier test education or consultation and carrier testing or screening. It was not possible to draw clear conclusion regarding its effectiveness as only two studies involving assessment of cystic fibrosis and haemoglobinopathies were identified. Nevertheless, the studies have provided information on potential benefits of preconception assessment of reproductive genetic risks on reproductive decisions, knowledge and understanding of carrier risk as well as psychological benefits. The third component of work involved self-administered postal questionnaire survey. The impact of this survey is restricted due to low response rates. Nevertheless, the results of this survey indicated that a substantial proportion of GPs were already offering or providing preconception assessment on reproductive genetic risk opportunistically, in particular, with women planning pregnancy and women with known family history of genetic conditions. Even if they are not offering of providing preconception assessment on reproductive genetic risk at present, majority of them indicated that they are prepared to offer and provide the service, especially when consulting women planning a pregnancy or women at-risk. Their primary concern was how to reach these women as not many would come to consult GPs for preconception advice. This study has demonstrated that family planning clinic was the most preferred primary care setting to offer preconception assessment on reproductive genetic risk. In the United Kingdom, family planning clinics serve a large proportion of women of reproductive age group, thus, this setting may provide opportunities to introduce preconception care and reproductive risk assessment including genetics. While there is paucity of evidence from the systematic reviews in my thesis that could impact on the direction or implementation of offering preconception care addressing genetic risks, many factors other than scientific evidence can influence the implementation process. Observational studies have demonstrated potential benefits of preconception care specifically preconception assessment of genetic risk interventions such as early antenatal diagnosis to informed reproductive decisions. Broad interests from the international organization such as in the United States and Netherlands have a role in the implementation. Similarly, interest from the stakeholders in particular individuals of reproductive age groups and the primary care providers also may influence the development of the interventions. In this context, the GPs that participated in the survey have provided important information on opportunities and barriers, and potential ways to facilitate its development. Nevertheless, analysis of the data has identified some areas that were not fully addressed in this thesis and this is discussed in the final chapter.

Background: The literature review reveals information about what makes a good midwife from several perspectives. However, there is a dearth of knowledge around women’s perceptions of a good midwife in different birthplaces. Aim. The aim of the study was to explore and explain first-time mothers’ expectations and experiences of a good midwife during childbirth in the context of different places of birth. Methods: A qualitative grounded theory methodology was undertaken. Fourteen first-time mothers planning to birth in different settings in England (Home, Freestanding Midwifery Unit, Obstetric Unit) were recruited. Data were collected through two semi-structured interviews for each participant (before and after birth). Data analysis included the processes of coding and conceptualising data, with constant comparison between data, literature and memos. Ethical approval was gained. Informed consent was obtained from participants and women were free to decline participation or to withdraw at any time. Confidentiality was guaranteed. Findings: The model named ‘The kaleidoscopic midwife: a conceptual metaphor illustrating first-time mothers’ perspectives of a good midwife’ was developed. The model is dynamic and woman-centred, operationalised as the midwife’s characteristics that should adapt to each woman’s individual needs in the context of each specific labour, irrespective of the birth setting. Four pillars of care are encompassed in the care provided by a good midwife in the labour continuum: promoting individuality; supporting embodied limbo; helping to go with the flow; providing information and guidance. As a kaleidoscopic figure, a good midwife should be multi-coloured and ever changing in the light of the woman’s individual needs, expectations and labour journey (e.g. stage of labour and events occurring during childbirth), in order to create an environment that enables her to move forward despite the uncertainty and the expectations-experiences gap. The following elements are harmonised by the kaleidoscopic midwife: relationship-mediated being; knowledgeable doing; physical presence; immediately available presence. Conclusion: The model presented has relevance to contemporary debates about quality of care and place of birth and can be used by midwives to pursue excellence in caring for labouring mothers. Independently from the place of birth, when the woman is cared for by a midwife demonstrating the above characteristics, she is more likely to have an optimum experience of birth.

Background: There are many problems of parenting during infancy for Chinese primiparous women. As an important determinant of good parenting, maternal self-efficacy (MSE) should be paid more attention by researchers. At present, the limitations of previous research examining MSE during infancy are that most studies were related to a homogeneous sample (approximately 90% white) and lacked the consideration of cultural effect; the influencing factors remained poorly explored; and there were few studies related to Chinese women. Therefore, it is necessary to assess MSE and to thoroughly explore the factors influencing MSE among Chinese primiparous women in consideration of the Chinese postnatal culture of “Doing the month” to fill the research gap. Aim: The aim of this study was to describe MSE and to explore factors which may influence MSE in primiparous women in China in the first three months postnatally. Methods: A quantitative longitudinal study using questionnaires was conducted. In total, 420 primiparous women were recruited in obstetric wards at three hospitals in Xiamen City, China. Initial baseline questionnaires to measure socio-demographic and clinical characteristics at three days postnatally were distributed to participants face-to-face by the researcher on the postnatal ward. Participants’ contact details were also collected. Follow-up questionnaires at six and 12 weeks were sent via email by the researcher to participants, including the Self-efficacy in Infant Care Scale (SICS), the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the Postpartum Social Support Scale (PSSS) to measure MSE, postnatal depression symptoms and social support, respectively. These were returned by participants via email. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS. Results: The mean MSE score at six weeks postnatally was 74.92 (SD=11.05), and increased to 77.78 (SD=11.13) at 12 weeks postnatally. The mean social support scores at six and 12 weeks postnatally were 40.99 (SD=9.31) and 43.00 (SD=9.55). The mean EPDS scores decreased from 9.09 (SD=4.33) at six weeks postnatally to 8.63 (SD=4.40) at 12 weeks postnatally; the proportion of women with an EPDS score of ten or more at the two time points declined from 47.4% to 38.3%. The mean score of how satisfied women were with “Doing the month” was 68.73 (SD=17.65) at six weeks postnatally, with most women (91.4%) thinking that “Doing the month” after childbirth was necessary. In the multivariate analysis, the variables: social support scores, women’s satisfaction with “Doing the month” scores, EPDS scores, maternal education, maternal occupation, baby health scores, and baby fussiness scores affected MSE scores during the initial postnatal period. Conclusions: In this study, Chinese primiparous women had a moderate level of MSE and received a moderate level of social support at six and 12 weeks postnatally, and a higher proportion of Chinese women had postnatal depression symptoms than did women in Western countries. From six to 12 weeks postnatally, the mean MSE scores and social support scores had a statistically significant increase; the mean EPDS scores had a statistically significant decrease. “Doing the month” was still popular in Chinese modern society and almost half of the women felt satisfied about their experience of “Doing the month”. Obstetric nurses and women’s family members need to be aware of the significant contribution of social support, women’s satisfaction level with “Doing the month” in positively influencing primiparous women’s MSE, and the significant effect of postnatal depression symptoms in negatively impacting on first-time mothers’ MSE; they should pay more attention to primiparous women with less education, unemployed mothers, women with unskilled occupations, women with an unhealthy baby, and women with a baby with a difficult temperament to improve their comparatively lower MSE levels during the initial postnatal period.

A number of women continue to smoke in pregnancy despite the associated risks to their health and that of their unborn child. Little is known about their attitudes towards the smoking cessation support which is available to them and this thesis used a Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) approach to investigate this further. Study One was a qualitative investigation designed to elicit pregnant women's views about NHS Stop Smoking Services and Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT). Interviews were conducted with 18 pregnant smokers, recent quitters and new mothers who smoked in pregnancy, and 18 health professionals working in smoking cessation services. A number of behavioural, normative and control beliefs were generated with respect to these behaviours. As there is evidence for inconsistent smoking cessation advice giving in pregnancy and a lack of confidence amongst health professionals in this area, a theory-based resource to facilitate the communication of smoking cessation information in pregnancy was developed in Study Two and tested in an exploratory randomised controlled trial. The 22 second year medical students who viewed the theory-based resource in preparation for a mock interview were not significantly better at eliciting the salient smoking cessation beliefs of the simulated patient (mean score 8.41) than the 18 second year medical students who received a standard information resource (mean score 7.67). However, the resource showed potential to facilitate the delivery of a more patient centred interview and is worthy of further testing. The themes generated in Study One were used to inform the development of a TPB questionnaire to predict NRT use in pregnancy (NRTP-LF) in Study Three. This questionnaire was completed by 100 pregnant smokers who were recruited from antenatal clinics and Stop Smoking Services. The NRTP-LF significantly predicted intention to use NRT in pregnancy, explaining 41.1% of the variance in the outcome variable, justifying the creation of a short form version of it (NRTPSF). In Study Four, the NRTP-SF was tested on a further sample of 204 pregnant smokers recruited from antenatal clinics and Stop Smoking Services and was also shown to have predictive validity with respect to intention to use NRT in pregnancy. It also significantly predicted interest in participation in a trial testing the efficacy and safety of NRT use in pregnancy. It is envisaged that the theory-based communication resource and the NRTP-SF could have practical utility in health care settings and the potential to increase smoking cessation service use and quit rates in pregnancy.

This study explores the nature of competence required to fulfil the role of the midwife, learning to become competent, and professional learning beyond registration. The research was undertaken through a qualitative, case study approach, exploring competence as a phenomenon, as experienced by thirty-nine student midwives as they went through the final stages of pre-registration midwifery education programmes, were assessed to be competent, and took on the role of the midwife. The views of the thirty-nine participants of competence and of their own capability, development and learning, were compared with the views of teachers, assessors, other midwives, and supervisors of midwives, working with participants. Also explored are the characteristics of the expert and the characteristics of good and bad midwives. The case is made early on in the thesis that a definition of competence is required for midwifery to develop as a profession, to protect the public, and to facilitate midwife development pre and post registration. Towards achieving this, the research begins to construct a model of midwifery competence as an integrated, holistic concept. The research explores the relationship between the various components and dimensions in the integrated model and the factors involved in being competent across contexts and from situation to situation. Factors involved in the maintenance of competence over time and in learning beyond registration are identified by exploring the nature of learning beyond registration and the characteristics of good and bad midwives.

Die in der vorliegenden Arbeit verwendeten wissenschaftlichen Namen und die vorgenommenen nomenklatorischen Handlungen sollen nicht für nomenklatorische Zwecke im Rahmen des International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) berücksichtigt werden. Die Namen der neu beschriebenen Taxa wurden daher in Einvernehmen mit der Prüfungskommission in Anführungszeichen gesetzt. Um die Namen und nomenklatorischen Handlungen nach den Bestimmungen des ICZN verfügbar zu machen, erfolgt eine separate Publikation der Dissertation in abgeänderter Ausführung im European Journal of Taxonomy. The scientific names and nomenclatural acts in this paper are not to be considered for nomenclatural purposes as defined by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). All newly established names are therefore written in quotation marks. In order to make these names officially available, a separate publication based on this dissertation is being published in the European Journal of Taxonomy. / Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt eine umfassende Revision der Grabwespengattung Sphex (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) für die afroropische Faunenregion sowie Madagaskar und die umliegenden Inseln dar. Die Ergebnisse basieren auf dem Studium von knapp 4000 aus dem Untersuchungsgebiet stammenden, genadelten Exemplaren von Sphex aus 16 international bedeutsamen Museumssammlungen. Insgesamt werden 46 Taxa behandelt, bei 16 von ihnen handelt es sich um Erstbeschreibungen. Für ihre systematische Einordnung wurden sieben neue Artengruppen postuliert, von denen einige höchstwahrscheinlich auch in weiteren biogeografischen Regionen vertreten sind. Es wurde ein dichotomer Bestimmungsschlüssel für alle nachgewiesenen Arten und Unterarten der Afrotropis angefertigt, außerdem erfolgt für jedes Taxon eine detaillierte Darstellung der wichtigsten morphologischen Merkmale sowie eine geografische Repräsentation der Verbreitung. In Kombination mit den morphologischen Daten konnte unter Zuhilfenahme von Methoden zur Extraktion und Sequenzierung von DNA außerdem zum ersten Mal eine Phylogenie innerhalb der Gattung Sphex erstellt werden. / A revision of the genus Sphex (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) for the Afrotropical realm, Madagascar and the surrounding islands is presented. Results are based on the study of approximately 4000 pinned individuals from 16 international museum collections. Forty-six taxa are treated, 16 of which are described for the first time. Seven new species groups are proposed, dichotomous identification keys which include all known Sphex species and subspecies from Sub-Saharan Africa are created, detailed redescriptions and images of morphological characters are provided and geographical distributions of all taxa are depicted in maps. Using a combination of morphological data and genetic sequences obtained from some of the specimens, the first hypothesis for an intrageneric phylogeny of Sphex is proposed.

Innerhalb der Decapoda stellt das Taxon Brachyura eines der artenreichsten Taxa mit bis zu 10000 Arten dar. Die Phylogenie der Brachyura wird aufgrund morphologischer und molekularer Untersuchungen seit mehr als ein Jahrhundert kontrovers diskutiert. Zur Klärung phylogenetischer Fragestellungen wurde mit den vergleichenden Untersuchungen der Magenossikel und der Magenzähne von 66 Taxa der Brachyura ein neuer phylogenetischer Ansatz gewählt. Mit Anwendung eines spezifischen Färbepigmentes, Alizarin-Rot S, konnten sechs neue Magenossikel einer bereits existierenden Nomenklatur hinzugefügt werden, so dass jetzt 41 Magenossikel für das Grundmuster der Brachyura angenommen werden können. Im Ergebnis der phylogenetischen Analyse wird ein monophyletisches Taxon Brachyura einschließlich der Taxa Dromiidae und Raninidae unterstützt. Die von Guinot (1977, 1978) als Monophyla postulierten Teiltaxa Podotremata und Heterotremata finden hier keine Unterstützung. Taxa wie Raninidae und Cymonomidae, welche aufgrund der coxalen Position ihrer Genitalporen dem Taxon Podotremata sensu Guinot zugeschrieben werden, weisen nach vorliegenden Daten eine nähere Verwandtschaft zu den "höheren" Krabben auf. Eine Monophylie eines Taxons Thoracotremata sensu Guinot kann dagegen basierend auf den analysierten Magenstrukturen, aber auch auf der Grundlage molekularer Studien (Schubart et al. 2000a, 2000b) und dem vorliegenden Daten zum Fossilbericht angenommen werden. Eine basale Stellung der Dynomenidae und Dromiidae im Ergebnis der kladistischen Analyse lässt sich mit den Fossilfunden aus dem mittleren Jura in Übereinstimmung bringen. Des weiteren kann für die meisten Taxa der "höheren" Krabben ein gemeinsamer Vorfahre für die obere Kreide bzw. bis zum Beginn des Tertiärs postuliert werden. / Within the Decapoda the taxon Brachyura is the species-richest taxon with up to 10000 species. The phylogeny of the Brachyura has been discussed based on morphological and molecular investigations since more than a century. The investigation of the foregut-ossicles and gastric-teeth of 66 brachyuran species, is a new approach to answer important phylogenetic questions. Using a specific staining pigment Alizarin Red S, six new described foregut-ossicles are added to an existing nomenclature. As a result of this method the presence of 41 foregut-ossicles is proposed for the ground pattern of the Brachyura. The cladistic analysis supports a monophyletic origin of the Brachyura including the Dromiidae and the Raninidae. The taxa Podotremata and Heterotremata, postulated as monophyletic by Guinot (1977, 1978), are not supported in the present study. The Dromiidae and Raninidae, which are placed within the Podotremata sensu Guinot, are closer related to the "higher crabs". Based on the analysed foregut-characters, several molecular studies (Schubart et al. 2000a, 2000b), and the data of the fossil record, a monophyletic origin of the Thoracotremata sensu Guinot is suggested. The analysed basal position of the Dynomenidae and Dromiidae is in agreement with the brachyuran fossil record. A common ancestor for most of the "higher" brachyuran crabs is suggested for the period between the upper Cretaceous and the beginning of the Tertiary.

Die Brachyura umfassen ca. 7000 Arten. Die Variationsbreite ihrer morphologischen Merkmale spiegelt sich in den männlichen und weiblichen Reproduktionssystemen wider und machen sie zu einem herausfordernden Untersuchungsgegenstand. Obwohl sich zahlreiche Studien mit der Phylogenie der Brachyura befasst haben, fehlen eindeutige Ergebnisse. Manche Studien stützen sich weiterhin auf deren Teilung in die Podotremata, die Heterotremata und die Thoracotremata (die beiden letzteren bilden die Eubrachyura), die auf der Position der Gonoporen basiert. In dieser Arbeit wurden die männlichen Kopulations- und weiblichen Reproduktionssysteme von vier eubrachyuren Arten untersucht. Zur Analyse ihrer inneren Morphologie, wurden die Gonopoden in der ersten und zweiten Studie μCT-gescannt und 3D-rekonstruiert. Zusätzlich wurden in allen Studien rasterelektronenmikroskopische Untersuchungen angewendet, um Informationen über die Oberflächenstrukturen der Gonopoden zu erhalten. Alle Untersuchungen des weiblichen Systems wurden mit bewährten histologischen Methoden und Lichtmikroskopie durchgeführt. In der ersten und zweiten Studie wurde diese detaillierte Strukturanalyse durch 3D-Rekonstruktion ergänzt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studien wurden in Zusammenhang mit der vorhandenen Literatur interpretiert, um Merkmale des männlichen und weiblichen Reproduktionssystems zu definieren und deren Potenzial für phylogenetische Untersuchungen zu diskutieren. Außerdem wird ein evolutives Scenario bezüglich der Transformation der hier vorgeschlagenen Merkmalszustände des weiblichen Reproduktionssystems diskutiert. Die Gonopoden sind wertvoll, um Artenzugehörigkeiten zu Brachyurengruppen zu identifizieren, sind aber für Untersuchungen großskaliger Brachyurenphylogenie ungeeignet. Einige der weiblichen Merkmale können ausschließlich heterotremen oder thoracotremen Weibchen zugeordnet werden. Die vorgeschlagenen Szenarien deuten darauf hin, dass einige dieser Charaktere mehrfach entstanden sind. / The Brachyura comprise approximately 7000 species. The variability of their morphological traits is reflected in the male copulatory and the female reproductive systems that make them a challenging object of investigation. Numerous studies addressed the brachyuran phylogeny but unambiguous results have yet to be presented. Some studies still rely on the division of Brachyura into the Podotremata, the Heterotremata and the Thoracotremata (the latter two forming the Eubrachyura) that is based on the position of the male and female gonopores. In this work, the male copulatory and female reproductive systems of four eubrachyuran species were investigated. In the first and the second study, the gonopods were µCT-scanned and 3D-reconstructed to analyse their internal morphology. Additionally, in all studies scanning electron microscopy was used in order to obtain information about the surface structures of the gonopods. All investigations of the female system were conducted using approved histological methods and light microscopy. In the first and second study, this detailed structural analysis was complemented by 3D-reconstruction. The results of these studies are evaluated in comparison with the existing literature in order to define characters of the male copulatory and female reproductive system and discuss their potential for phylogenetic investigations. Additionally, an evolutionary scenario of the transformations of the herein proposed character states of the female reproductive system is discussed. Without additional information from the female reproductive system, the gonopod morphology is valuable to identify species affiliations to certain groups but remains inconclusive for large-scale brachyuran phylogeny. Some of the female characters found in these studies can explicitly be assigned to heterotreme or thoracotreme females. The proposed scenarios suggest, that some, if not all of these characters probably have evolved multiple times.