The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), a mercantile venture that was founded by royal charter in 1670, conceived, constructed and ran Fort Vancouver as its economic center in the Pacific Northwest, a colonial outpost at the edge of the company's holdings in North America. Research into the history of the HBC revealed that the company was motivated by mercantile interests, and that Fort Vancouver operated under feudal land policies while steadily adopting a hierarchical structure. Following the work of Marxist archaeologist Mark Leone whose work in Annapolis, Maryland explored the effects of capitalist ideology on archaeological assemblages of ceramics, this study sought to locate the material signatures of ideologies in the ceramic assemblages recovered from the Fort and its adjacent multi-ethnic Village sites. In Annapolis, matching sets of ceramics were used as a material indicator of the successful penetration of capitalist ideals of segmentation, division and standardization that accompanied the carefully cultivated ideology of individualism, into working class households. Following this model, this study analyzed six assemblages for the presence of matched sets of ceramic tablewares using the diversity measures of richness and evenness. The results of this analysis for five assemblages from households in the Village were then compared to those expected for a model assemblage that was inferred to represent the ultimate model of participation in and dissemination of the same ideals of segmentation and division: that recovered from the Chief Factor's House within the fort. Documentary research confirmed that ideology was used to indoctrinate workers into the unique relations of production at Fort Vancouver however it was an ideology of paternal allegiance to the company rather than one of possessive individualism, as in Annapolis. At Fort Vancouver the notion of individuality was subtly downplayed in favor of one that addressed the company's responsibility to its workers and encouraged them to view its hierarchy, which was reinforced spatially, socially and economically, as natural. Analysis of the archaeological assemblages revealed that it is unlikely that the Village assemblages are comprised of complete sets of matching ceramicwares. The lack of these sets is likely the result of the multivalent nature of the economic system at the fort and its distinct ideology of paternalism, as well as the diverse backgrounds and outlooks of the Village occupants themselves, who appear to have purchased and used these European ceramics in unique ways.

The Centralia Tragedy of 1919 has been represented in numerous works over the course of the past 100 years. The vast majority of them concern the events of the day of the Tragedy, November 11, 1919, and whether a small group of Wobblies – members of a union group known as the International Workers of the World (I.W.W.) – opened fire on a group of parading American Legionnaires. This particular element, whether or not the Wobblies opened fire on the Legionnaires or the Legionnaires actually charged the hall where the Wobblies were staying, has generated significant concern in academic and popular literature since it occurred. This study is less concerned with the events of the day itself, accepting that the full truth might not ever be known. It is instead focused on the collective remembering of that event, and how those recollections splintered into several strands of memory in the nearly 96 years since. It categorizes those strands into three specific ones: the official memory framework, the Labor countermemory framework, and the academic framework. Each strand developed from early in the Tragedy’s history, starting with authors and adherents in the days after a 1920 trial. That trial, which declared the Wobblies guilty of the deaths of four Legionnaires while not holding anyone accountable for the lynching of Wobbly Wesley Everest, generated ample discord among Centralians. This lack of closure prompted the various aggrieved parties to produce books, pamphlets, speeches, protests and even a famed statue in Centralia's main park. Over time, the various perspectives congealed into the distinct strands of memory, which often flared up in conflict between 1930 and the present day.

I examined the population genetic structure of three known subspecies of Glaucomys sabrinus from Appalachia, Washington State, and two previously unexamined populations from Mount Rogers National Recreation Area (MRNRA) in Southwestern Virginia. Mean FST (0.107) and an AMOVA (P G. sabrinus subspecies populations in the southern Appalachians are genetically differentiated. Glaucomys sabrinus at MRNRA were less inbred than expected. Gene flow, a consensus tree based on Nei's genetic distance, elevated heterozygosity and morphometric data suggest that the MRNRA G. sabrinus population is an intergrade of the two recognized Appalachian subspecies, G. s. fuscus and G. s. coloratus. I compared inbreeding and the level of parasite infestation in the two MRNRA populations of G. sabrinus and found that Whitetop Mountain (150 ha habitat) was more inbred than the population on Mount Rogers (400 ha habitat, P Strongyloides robustus were greater in the more fragmented Whitetop Mountain population, although the difference was not statistically significant (P= 0.278). A Mantel comparison of genetic diversity and parasite infestation among individuals did show a highly significant negative correlation (P G. sabrinus form a unique insular population with high genetic diversity that is nonetheless susceptible to increased inbreeding, and elevated parasitism caused by fragmentation. MRNRA G. sabrinus should retain endangered species status.

The Seattle Repertory Theatre is one of the most successful regional theatre companies in the country. This study attempts to determine the components-of its success. It concludes that the unique community acceptance and support of the Seattle Repertory Theatre is due primarily to the innovations of its Artistic Director, W. Duncan Ross, including a departure from the "permanent company" repertory theatre concept to a more flexible "nucleus company" supported by special guest artists, a shift in play selection emphasis from traditional dramatic plays to more contemporary and comedic works, and shortened .duration for each play from four to three weeks. Also examined are the growth of American Theatre, Ross's community involvement, guest directors, critical acceptance, and audience attendance.

The decline of the Oregon Spotted Frog (Rana pretiosa), a Pacific Northwest endemic now federally listed as threatened, has been attributed to several aspects of ecosystem alteration, primarily habitat degradation and loss. The introduced American Bullfrog (Rana (Aquarana) catesbeiana) has been widely implicated in those declines, but the basis of that contention has been difficult to characterize. The bullfrog occurring at every site of recent Oregon Spotted Frog extirpation has focused concern about its impact. Here, I present a suite of interconnected studies that examine the behavioral ecology of both species to better understand the potential for bullfrog-mediated Oregon Spotted Frog extirpation. I quantified Oregon Spotted Frog anti-predator behavior from the only known population successfully co-occurring with bullfrogs (Conboy Lake) and a population devoid of bullfrog impact (Big Marsh), and compared these behaviors to the predatory traits of the bullfrog. The initial study revealed that captive-reared individuals from the Oregon Spotted Frog population that has successfully co-occurred with bullfrogs respond faster to a predatory stimulus (measured as latency to response) than Oregon Spotted Frogs from a population not to exposed to bullfrogs. Subsequent field investigations of the approach distance allowed by a predator stimulus before taking evasive action (termed the flight initiation distance: FID) conducted with the Oregon Spotted Frog population co-occurring with bullfrogs first demonstrated that FID of recently metamorphosed bullfrogs is consistently greater than that of recently metamorphosed Oregon Spotted Frogs. Further, examination of FID across all post-metamorphic age classes of Oregon Spotted Frogs revealed that older frogs do not allow as close approach as recently metamorphosed Oregon Spotted Frogs. This age class shift in FID did not occur in the Oregon Spotted Frog population not exposed to bullfrogs. In the latter population, FID did not differ among age classes. Since the bullfrog might be driving this age-based change in anti-predator behavior, I explored the variation in strike distance of bullfrogs from the site of co-occurrence in both the field and laboratory to determine the extent of overlap with Oregon Spotted Frog FID. I found that the bullfrog strike distance significantly overlaps the FID of all ages of Oregon Spotted Frogs from the bullfrog-free site but only that of youngest (recently metamorphosed) frogs at the site of co-occurrence. Older Oregon Spotted Frogs from the site of co-occurrence generally escaped at distances greater than the strike distance of bullfrogs. I also collected > 880 bullfrogs from the site of co-occurrence and analyzed the stomach contents to assess their dietary trends. I found that bullfrogs consume Oregon Spotted Frogs at the site, but do not eat the larger (older) frogs. Moreover, the body size ratio between Oregon Spotted Frogs as prey and bullfrogs as predators suggests that nearly all of the adult size distribution of bullfrogs at Conboy would be incapable of preying on adult Oregon Spotted Frogs. Collectively, these studies strongly suggest that bullfrogs have altered the escape behavior of Oregon Spotted Frogs at Conboy Lake and that most adult Oregon Spotted Frogs at Conboy may have a size-based release from predation by bullfrogs. Implicit in this finding is that bullfrogs may pose a real threat via predation to other Oregon Spotted Frog populations with which they might come into contact where the distribution of bullfrog body sizes differ substantially from that at Conboy Lake.

Studies of historic fish archaeofaunas can contribute to our understanding of Victorian-era consumer choice and agency. However, most zooarchaeological work focuses on interpreting large mammal remains such as cow (Bos taurus). That fish are overlooked is particularly striking in the Pacific Northwest, where fishing was a major facet of both the bourgeoning industrial economy and local household practices. My thesis addresses this gap through study of archival records (mainly newspapers) and zooarchaeological fish records from a neighborhood in Vancouver, Washington focusing on the period between 1880 and 1910. My particular goals were to examine how fishes were acquired and their economic role in a market economy. I conducted archival research through systematic and qualitative reviews of The Oregonian and other newspapers in Oregon and Washington. I recorded 105 different named fishes, which I linked to 46 Linnaean taxa; 76 fishes were listed with price information in advertisements. I connected these fishes to market acquisition, and the remaining fishes to personal catch. I ranked the sixteen most prominent fishes by their price. Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) was the most expensive, and Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus) was the least expensive. Five ranked fishes were introduced; all of these were in the top 50% of the ranking. Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) was advertised the most frequently, but was in the lower 50% of the ranking. Some fishes (e.g., common carp [Cyprinus carpio]) were heavily promoted by federal entities and private entrepreneurs, but viewed negatively by consumers. The zooarchaeological portion of my study focused on privies from the Esther Short neighborhood (Vancouver, WA), which, between 1880 and 1910, was a predominantly middle- and working-class community, occupied by people of European ancestry. The fish fauna (total NISP: 1,282) had previously been documented by Krey Easton. I reanalyzed ~30% of the fish remains to verify identifications; our results were highly correlated. Ten fish families representing 16 taxa were recorded in the assemblage. Both introduced fishes (n = 6 taxa) and native fishes (n = 10 taxa) were present. Catfish (Ictaluridae) dominated the assemblage (76%). Salmonids represented 15%. I recorded five new taxa from specimens previously noted as "unidentified". I documented body part representation and butchering marks to establish the fish portions Esther Short residents acquired. Finally, I compared archaeofaunal fish representation against the fish rank obtained from archival research. Residents acquired fishes both as market purchases and through personal catch. Eight fish taxa in the assemblage represented market purchases. Four were nonmarket fishes. An additional four could represent either market or nonmarket fishes. Nine taxa recovered from the neighborhood were also fishes included in the ranking. Neighborhood residents were predominantly eating low-cost purchased catfish heads, which were likely incorporated into soups, stews, or chowders. I found some evidence for higher-cost purchases and fish steaks, which I loosely connected to conspicuous consumerism. Evidence of personal catch (sport and subsistence angling) illustrates agency and potential resistance to the systemic Victorian model, in which the middle class generally did not participate in such activities. My thesis shows that interpreting fish use provides valuable insights into historical-era consumer choice and agency. On a systemic level, fish use was driven by sources of authority and monied interests. Expression of identity was visible in structural responses to systemic forces, both through consumer choice within the markets, and rejection of the market economy. Fish use in the Esther Short neighborhood showed some household patterns of "purchasing within one's means", as well as several expressions of agency that conformed to or rejected Victorian-era ideals.

This study was conducted to examine the traits and goals of students enrolled in the ESL program at Clark College in Vancouver, Washington over the past two academic years (1992 and 1993). The study looks at the degree of awareness that these students have of further educational opportunities in the academic and vocational areas, and the degree to which the ESL program at Clark College engenders this awareness. Data was collected from two cohorts of students enrolled in the ESL program on two separate occasions, each approximately one year apart. The goals of the study included the following: ( 1) gathering background data for the students attending the ESL program; (2) collecting information regarding students' past and present knowledge of computer technology; (3) awareness of the financial aid programs available; (4) future goals in the areas of education and employment. Comparison of the responses from the two cohorts provides instructors and administrators a clear picture of the students they are serving and provides the rationale for providing the material and logistical support required to allow ESL students to enter into mainstream programs at the community college level.

This study encompasses 25 kilometers of the Chehalis River in Washington, USA that currently has sections under a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) plan for stream temperature impairments that exceed 18°C, a regulatory standard set at the time of the listing to protect salmonid spawning, rearing, and migration. Using information integrated from stationary data loggers (n=22) that collected stream temperature information from August 4-September 10, 2017, and longitudinal thermal profiling performed on July 29-30, August 4-5, and September 9-10, 2017, this study aimed to quantify the spatial distribution of stream temperature, evaluate relative consistencies of the riverine thermal regime over time, and identify which independent variables (land cover, aspect, canopy cover, impervious surfaces, channel width, discharge and air temperature) are correlated with stream temperature metrics using Spearman's rank correlation and stepwise linear regression modeling. Stream temperature was found to be strongly correlated with all air temperature metrics. The strongest model from stepwise linear regression (R2 = 0.711) found width, shrub/scrub, mixed forest, and cultivated crop land cover to be the strongest explanatory variables with the seven day average of the daily maximum stream temperature (7DADMaxTw) at the 22 sites. Tributaries had overall cooler average maximum stream temperatures than main stem sites. Thermal profiling identified seven cold-water patches (defined as the cumulative stream temperature ≥1°C cooler than the surrounding water). Integrating longitudinal thermal profiling and stationary data loggers allows resource managers to understand spatiotemporal stream temperature trends and influences and can assess more effective mitigation strategies to combat rising stream temperatures.

Regional paleoclimatic proxies and current local climate variables and were analyzed to reconstruct paleoglaciers in an effort to assess glacier change On Mount Rainier. Despite the dry and generally warm conditions (sea surface temperatures (SST) -0.15°C to +1.8°C relative to current temperatures), the previously documented McNeeley II advance (10,900 - 9,950 cal yr B.P.) was likely produced by air temperature fluctuations. The average SST record and the terrestrial climate proxies show cooling temperatures with continued dryness between McNeeley II and the Burroughs Mountain advance (3,442 - 2,153 cal yr B.P.). The paleoclimate during the Burroughs Mountain advance was both cool and warm (SST temperatures -0.55°C to +0.5°C) and was the wettest of the Holocene. A combination of statistical and deterministic equilibrium line altitude (ELA) models was used to produce Holocene ELAs between 1,735 -2,980 m. Glacial advances were predicted 10,990, 10,170, 9,260, 8,200, 6,490, 3,450 and 550 - 160 cal yr. B.P. Two glacier flow models were produced simultaneously to constrain glacial extent through the Holocene. Model I is based on current mass balance parameters and produced lengths for the Nisqually and Emmons glaciers 3.7 - 14.2 km and 4.2 - 17.1 km respectively. Glaciated area ranged from 26 to 327 km2. Model 2 is tuned to the Garda advance and produced lengths 2.6-10.6 km and 2.3-13.9 km. Glaciated area ranged from 11 to 303 km2. The first two advances were similar in elevation and GIS-modeled extent to McNeely II moraines. The following three advances were not detected in the geologic record. The 3,450 cal yr. B.P. advance was the largest of the late-Holocene (ELA 1,800 - 1,817 m) and was ~200 m lower than the geologic record. The ELAs of the Garda advance were modeled (1,944 - 1,983 m) and are similar to previous reconstructions. North-south spatial variations in glacial extent increase during periods of recession as the southern glaciers receive more ablation than northern glaciers. Early humans could have accessed the alpine environments as high as 1,730-2,980 m. The early Holocene glacial extent allowed the highest (2,980 m) 11,150 cal yr. B.P. and lowest (1,730 m) 10,990 cal yr. B.P. alpine access. Glacial retreat (2,727 m 10,400 cal yr. B.P.) was followed by an advance (1,929 m 10,170 cal yr. B.P.) and another retreat (2,951 m 10,050 cal yr. B.P.). Ice gradually descended and limited access to 1,820 m 6,490 cal yr. B.P. Glacial extents remained largely unchanged until the historic era when paleohumans would have had access to alpine environments at 2,000 m.

Since 2012, many states and Canada have legalized the use and sale of recreational marijuana. One of the expected benefits of the legalization is that the establishment of a legal cannabis market would eliminate the black market which has been the main form of marijuana trade for decades. Even though legal options are available for marijuana producers and consumers, the black market is still thriving in states where recreational marijuana has been legalized. The reasons behind the persistence of the marijuana black market are complex. One of the main arguments is that the legalized states have failed to establish a regulatory framework which effectively keeps both producers and consumers in the legal market. Instead, strict regulations and high cost of compliance have created an environment in favor of big players while driving small-scale businesses into the black market. The current research attempts to study this issue by answering the research question of whether overregulation is pushing some marijuana businesses back to the black market or preventing them from entering the legal market. This thesis employs a mix-method design to analyze qualitative data of news articles reporting the reasons that marijuana businesses decide to stay in the black market and a quasi-experimental time series analysis of National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) data regarding marijuana offenses in Colorado and Washington between 2014 and 2017. The qualitative analysis of news reports reveals that regulation is one of the main reasons that people stay in the illicit market. The comparison of marijuana crime trends in Colorado and Washington shows mixed findings. While marijuana offense rates in Colorado largely remained steady over the years, those in Washington increased dramatically after the implementation of more intensive regulations. The results of this study have several policy implications for the marijuana legalization as well as implications for future research on the black-market issue.