Thesis (M.Sc. (Chemistry)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / The present research work deals with the study of some of the important physicochemical parameters of restaurant wastewater effluents collected from Mankweng business centre along the University of Limpopo road. Studies revealed that restaurants, food preparation facilities, engineering, paper mill, fine chemical, dyes, paint, pharmaceutical, petrochemical and textile industries are some of the major industries responsible for polluting the aquatic environments. This research attempts to review the physical, chemical, and microbial analysis of wastewater from food service establishments (FSEs) and extraction of fats, oil, and grease (FOG) and its characterization using different analytical techniques. The elemental analysis revealed that the concentration of elements such as zinc, lead and manganese were 6.44 mg/L, 0.02 mg/L and 0.53 mg/L, respectively. The concentration of these elements was above the required South African National Standards 241 (SANS241) limit, that is, ≤5mg/L, ≤0.01mg/L and ≤0.4mg/L for Zn, Pb and Mn, respectively. The elevated concentrations may be due to corrosion, acidic pH found in some samples and high organic load. High organic content in wastewater influenced the production of oxygen by microorganisms in-order to degrade the amount of waste in the wastewater and this has led to high chemical oxygen demand (COD) level ranging from 1784-7196 mg/L and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) from 1101.32 to 3222.32 mg/L. The study has demonstrated that the wastewater samples are contaminated with faecal coliforms because the concentration of microbes Escherichia Coli (E.coli) with a Most Probable Number (MPN) >200.5 in most samples, P. aeruginosa, Pseudomonas spp. were too numerous to count (TNC) and total coliforms at the highest concentration of 9.1x103 CFU/ml which was influenced by change in pH of the wastewater, the FOG content consists of both triglycerides and acrolein. The overall results highlight the discharge of highly polluted wastewater effluent, these FSE have resulted in pollution of nearby rivers thereby affecting the growth of vegetation and aquatic life. The results of the present investigation point out the need to implement common objectives, compatible policies, and programmes for improvement in the FSEs wastewater treatment methods. / National Research Foundation and Sasol-Inzalo Foundation

Le milieu aquatique est le réceptacle ultime de la pollution environnementale. De nombreux micropolluants y sont présents et montrent des effets toxiques envers les systèmes aquatiques. La Directive Cadre Eau (DCE) a comme objectif la restauration du bon état écologique et chimique des milieux aquatiques d’ici 2015. Pour cela, elle impose des Normes de Qualités Environnementales (NQE) faibles et une surveillance accrue des masses d’eau. Au-delà des micropolluants réglementés, certains dits « émergents » ont été détectés à de faibles concentrations (ng.L-1) dans les systèmes aquatiques. Sous ce terme, sont regroupés les composés pharmaceutiques, certains pesticides, les hormones, etc. L’ensemble de ces micropolluants sont introduits dans l’environnement par plusieurs sources : dépôts atmosphériques, lessivage des sols, lixiviation et rejets industriels et/ou domestiques. Ces travaux de thèse ont porté plus précisément sur les alkylphénols, présents sur la liste des contaminants prioritaires dangereux de la DCE, leurs dérivés éthoxylés, le bisphénol A et les composés pharmaceutiques. Dans un premier temps, une attention particulière a été portée à l’analyse de ces composés. Les méthodes analytiques de chromatographie liquide couplée à la spectrométrie de masse simple (LC-MS) et en tandem (LC-MS/MS) pour les alkylphénols ont été optimisées en améliorant les contrôles qualités et en portant une attention particulière à l’extraction des composés sensibles aux contaminations extérieures (manipulateur, ambiance, etc.). Pour pallier aux problèmes liés à la contamination des échantillons par ces composés lors de l’extraction, la microextraction sur phase solide (SPME) et une méthode d’analyse par chromatographie en phase gazeuse couplée à la spectrométrie de masse simple (GC-MS) ont été dévelopées. Dans un second temps, le devenir et le comportement des alkylphénols, de leurs dérivés éthoxylés et des composés pharmaceutiques dans les stations d’épuration (STEP), sources d’introduction dans les systèmes aquatiques avérées, ont été étudiés. Cette étude a permis de mettre en évidence que les concentrations diminuent au cours des traitements dans les STEP pour tous les composés étudiés sauf pour l’acide alkylphénoxy acétique (NP1EC) qui est formé au cours des traitements secondaires ; la carbamazépine et dans une moindre mesure le diclofénac restent stables. Seuls les traitements tertiaires permettent une élimination significative de ces composés. La présence à plus de 50% des alkylphénols et de leurs dérivés éthoxylés dans la phase particulaire entraînent une adsorption non négligeable de ces composés dans les boues. Dans le but d’améliorer le suivi environnemental, les POCISTM standard (« Polar Organic chemical Integrative SamplersTM ») de configuration « pharmaceutiques » ont été développés lors d’expérimentations menées en laboratoire pour l’échantillonnage des alkylphénols, de leurs dérivés éthoxylés, du bisphénol A et des composés pharmaceutiques. Les alkylphénols et leurs dérivés éthoxylés sont accumulés avec un temps de latence dans les POCISTM standard montrant l’influence de la membrane sur le transfert de masse de ces composés. Les POCISTM standards ont été optimisés en changeant la nature des membranes pour l’échantillonnage des alkylphénols et de leurs dérivés éthoxylés. Ces nouveaux outils sont nommés POCISTM-like. Les POCISTM-Nylon 0,1 µm et 30 µm sont les POCISTM-like montrant un fort pouvoir concentrateur des alkylphénols, de leurs dérivés éthoxylés et du Bisphénol A tout en éliminant le temps de latence observé dans leur accumulation dans les POCISTM standards. Ces POCISTM-like ont par la suite été validés en mésocosmes puis dans le milieu naturel afin de mettre en évidence leur caractère intégratif, permettant ainsi de s’affranchir de l’effet matriciel et de détecter certains composés à des concentrations inférieures aux limites de quantification. / The aquatic environment is the ultimate receptacle of environmental pollution. Many micro-pollutants are present and show toxic effects to aquatic systems (bioaccumulation in tissues, inhibition of growth, endocrine dysfunction, etc.). The Water Framework Directive (WFD) aims to restore the good ecological and chemical quality of aquatic environments by 2015. For this, it imposes low Environmental quality standards (EQS) and increased monitoring of water bodies. Beyond regulated micro-pollutants, some "emerging" have been detected at low concentrations (ng L-1) in aquatic systems. Under this term are grouped pharmaceutical compounds, some pesticides, hormones, etc. All of these micro-pollutants are introduced into the environment through several sources: atmospheric deposition, soil leaching and industrial or domestic discharges.This work is specifically focused on alkylphenols, present on the list of priority hazardous compounds in the WFD, their ethoxylated derivatives, bisphenol A and pharmaceutical compounds. As a first step, particular attention was paid to the analysis of these compounds. Analytical methods of liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC / MS) and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for alkylphenols were optimized by improving quality controls and paying attention to the extraction of sensitive compounds toward contamination (manipulator, atmosphere, etc.). To overcome the problems associated with sample contamination by these compounds during the extraction, solid phase microextraction (SPME) and a method of analysis by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was developed. In a second step, the fate and behavior of alkylphenols, their ethoxylated derivatives and pharmaceutical compounds in sewage treatment plants (WWTPs), sources of introduction into aquatic systems proved, were studied. This study has allowed showing the decrease of concentrations during treatment in WWTPs for all compounds studied except for alkylphenoxy acetic acid (NP1EC) which is formed during secondary treatment, carbamazepine, and to a lesser extent diclofenac remain stable. Only tertiary treatments allow significant removal of these compounds. The presence of more than 50% of alkylphenols and ethoxylated derivatives in the particulate phase lead to significant adsorption of these compounds into sludges. In order to improve environmental monitoring, during experiments conducted in the laboratory POCISTM standard (Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Samplers), "pharmaceuticals" configuration, have been developed for sampling alkylphenols, their ethoxylated derivates, bisphenol A and pharmaceutical compounds. Alkylphenols and their ethoxylated derivatives are accumulated with a lag phase in standard POCISTM showing the influence of the membrane on the mass transfer of these compounds. The standard POCISTM were optimized by changing the nature of the membranes for sampling alkylphenols and their ethoxylated derivatives. These new tools are named POCISTM-like. The POCISTM-Nylon 0.1 µm and 30 µm are POCISTM-like showing a strong power concentrator for alkylphénols, their ethoxylated derivatives and BPA while eliminating the lag phase observed in standard POCISTM. These POCISTM-like were subsequently validated in mesocosms and in the environment in order to highlight their integrative nature, allowing to overcome the matrix effect and to detect some compounds at concentrations below the limits of quantification.

This diploma thesis deals with sound water management and is divided into theoretical and practical part. The theoretical part is divided into three main chapters. The first part focuses on rainwater, its quality characteristics and utilization. The second chapter focuses on the management of waste water, its properties, the amount of waste water and natural ways of wastewater treatment. The last chapter is devoted to the gray waters and their utilization. The practical part focuses on the study of the draft comprehensive management of sewage and rainwater in the village Pařezov district Domažlice. It focuses on wastewater treatment using constructed wetlands, using rainwater for irrigation and infiltration of the remaining water.

Both Part I and Part II are included. / The separation of a mixture of glass spheres in water using 2 inch hydrocyclones was studied. <p> Three operating parameters were investigated: feed concentration, volume split and feed flow rate. In addition, three design parameters were cone angle, inlet diameter, and vortex finder length. The performance criterion parameters were the efficiency with which the solids were separated from the liquid, and the energy required per unit mass flowing through the hydrocyclone. </p> <p> First the experimental data were analyzed by three different statistical methods and the results compared in an attempt to determine which statistical method was most suitable for this two criteria system. The three methods were principal component analysis, canonical correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis. The theory behind these methods is briefly outlined. Our conclusion is that using all three methods give much more insight than could be obtained from any individual method. </p> <p> Second, an analysis of the above eight hydrocyclonc parameters of hydrocyclones with cylindrical sections indicated that for the range of parameters covered in this work, feed flow rate and inlet diameter influenced the energy loss most; volume split influenced the separation efficiency the most. Energy loss and separation efficiency are quite independent; this means that it is possible to design and run a hydrocyclone with high separation efficiency and low energy loss. The dilute concentrations used in this work indicate that a hydrocyclone of conventional design can be used in waste water treatment. When the parameters were correlated, a power model gave more consistent interpretation than a linear model. </p> <p> Third, the effect of the three operating parameters on hydrocyclones with three different body shapes suggested that the most efficient cyclone was one with a straight cone and no cylindrical section. The body shape dictated which parameters would significantly affect performance. </p> / Thesis / Master of Engineering (ME)

In waste water, phosphorous (P) can exist in inorganic or organic forms. Depending on the concentration, P can cause eutrophication and severe environmental pollution. Microorganisms have the ability to use and accumulate P, so microorganisms are studied to treat P in waste water in general and wastewater from cassava starch processing plants in particular. Research results show that in the 20 samples of waste water and sludge of the plant has selected three strains of bacteria that can accumulate P in the form of granules in the cell. Among them, SHV22 has the highest P accumulation capacity, reaching 3.05x10-11 mg/cell, P removal efficiency in wastewater from cassava starch processing factory is 82.1%. The strain was identified as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. / Trong nước thải P có thể tồn tại dưới dạng vô cơ hoặc hữu cơ. Tùy thuộc vào nồng độ, P có thể gây phú dưỡng và ô nhiễm môi trường nghiêm trọng. Vi sinh vật có khả năng sử dụng và tích lũy P, do đó vi sinh vật là đối tượng được nghiên cứu để xử lý P trong nước thải nói chung và nước thải của nhà máy chế biến tinh bột sắn nói riêng. Kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy, trong 20 mẫu nước và bùn thải của nhà máy đã chọn lựa được 3 chủng vi khuẩn có khả năng tích lũy P dưới dạng hạt trong tế bào. Trong số đó, chủng SHV22 có khả năng tích lũy P cao nhất, đạt tới 3,05x10-11 mg/tế bào, hiệu quả loại bỏ P trong nước thải của nhà máy chế biến tinh bột sắn đạt 82,1%. Chủng đã được định danh là Bacillus amyloliquefaciens.

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Una parte importante del trabajo desarrollado en la presente tesis está basado en la puesta a punto y aplicación de la técnica de la microscopía electroquímica de barrido (SECM). Con esta técnica se han caracterizado electroquímicamente superficies sobre las que se han sintetizado una serie de materiales electroactivos desarrollados por nuestro grupo de investigación. Dichos materiales se sintetizan sobre diferentes substratos con el fin de disponer de electrodos de trabajo con aplicación en el contexto del tratamiento electroquímico de aguas residuales contaminadas con colorantes azoicos, provenientes de procesos de tintura en industrias textiles. Entre las superficies desarrolladas se incluyen: ¿ Ánodos dimensionalmente estables (DSAs) fabricados a partir de una superficie de Ti recubierta de SnO2 (Ti/SnO2), dopada con Sb (Ti/SnO2-Sb) y estabilizada con Pt (Ti/SnO2-Sb-Pt). ¿ Un tejido de poliéster (PES) recubierto de polipirrol (PPy) dopado con antraquinona sulfonato (PES/PPy-AQSA) o fosfotungstato (PES/PPy- PW12O403-). ¿ Un tejido de PES recubierto de polianilina (PANI) sintetizada en medios sulfúrico (PES/PANI-HSO4-) y clorhídrico (PES/PANI-Cl-). ¿ Un hilo de Pt recubierto de PANI con Pt electrodispersado (Pt/PANI-Pt). ¿ Un tejido de fibra de carbono recubierto de PANI (C/PANI) con o sin Pt electrodispersado (C/PANI-Pt). ¿ Un tejido de PES recubierto con óxido de grafeno (GO) o con su forma reducida (RGO). Los análisis locales efectuados a las superficies anteriormente descritas permitieron determinar su electroactividad frente a los pares redox Fe(CN)63-/4- y Ru(NH3)63+/2+ seleccionados como mediadores. Las curvas experimentales de aproximación obtenidas con el sistema en modo feedback, se compararon con las curvas teóricas establecidas por la teoría SECM para un substrato conductor (feedback +) y un substrato aislante (feedback -). Las imágenes SECM en 2D y 3D permitieron observar la distribución de la actividad electroquímica superficial para las diferentes muestras. Los resultados obtenidos con la microscopía SECM se utilizaron para validar los procedimientos de síntesis del material electroactivo en lo concerniente a su electroactividad y a la homogeneidad de su distribución. Las superficies textiles presentan una topografía muy irregular en comparación con la superficie metálica de un DSA. Aspecto especialmente reseñable en las muestras textiles es la influencia que ejerce la topografía del substrato textil en la imagen SECM de la electroactividad con el microelectrodo moviéndose a altura constante con respecto al substrato. En este sentido, las imágenes SECM obtenidas sobre las muestras textiles muestran como la electroactividad superficial reproduce el patrón geométrico del tejido. La influencia en la actividad electroquímica de aspectos tales como: tiempo de vida útil/corrosión en el caso de los DSAs, tipo de dopante/pH en el caso de la superficie PES/PPy, influencia del pH en las muestras de PES/PANI, el estado de oxidación de la especie electroactiva y la influencia del mediador (par redox) en el caso del grafeno, ha quedado puesta de manifiesto claramente en los estudios efectuados con la microscopía SECM. Una segunda parte importante del trabajo realizado en la presente tesis, se desarrolla como continuación a los trabajos que el grupo de investigación viene realizando dentro del contexto del tratamiento electroquímico de colorantes azoicos en disolución acuosa. Así, en el capítulo 2 de la presente tesis, se estudia el desarrollo, caracterización y aplicación de una serie de electrodos fabricados a partir de un tejido activo de fibra de carbono. El objetivo que persigue el desarrollo de estos electrodos está en su aplicación a procesos industriales tales como: la electrooxidación de moléculas relativamente sencillas como por ejemplo metanol o, de acuerdo con nuestra línea de investigación, para el tratamiento electroquímico de aguas contaminadas con colorantes azoicos provenientes de los procesos de tintura en industrias textiles. Entre los electrodos textiles de fibra de carbono desarrollados en el capítulo 2 de la presente tesis se incluyen: ¿ Electrodos textiles de carbono sin modificar. ¿ Electrodos textiles de carbono modificados con Pt disperso. ¿ Electrodos textiles de carbono recubiertos de PPy o PANI. ¿ Electrodos textiles de carbono recubiertos de PPy o PANI con Pt disperso. Dos tipos de geometrías se eligieron a la hora de fabricar los electrodos de fibra de carbono anteriormente citados. Los electrodos monodimensionales (WE1D) fueron preparados a partir de una hebra tomada del propio tejido. Los electrodos bidimensionales (WE2D) se prepararon a partir de una banda de (1 cm x 3 cm) cortada del tejido de carbono. Por medio de la voltametría cíclica (CV) y utilizando los WE1D se establecieron las condiciones de síntesis para la fabricación de los WE2D modificados. Además, por medio de la CV se estudió la respuesta electroquímica de los WE1Ds en diferentes sistemas electroquímicos tales como: una disolución de H2SO4, una disolución de CH3OH/H2SO4 y una disolución de amarante/H2SO4. Para este último sistema, además, se utilizó un electrodo de carbono vítreo (GCE) ya que proporcionaba una respuesta voltamétrica más precisa que la obtenida con los WE1Ds. En la caracterización electroquímica que se realizó a los electrodos WE2D, la microscopía SECM jugó un papel relevante. Con la configuración 2D no era posible obtener voltagramas precisos que nos permitieran observar el comportamiento electroquímico de los diferentes WE2D modificados. Con la microscopía SECM, sí se pudo medir la actividad electrocatalítica de las diferentes superficies validándose, entonces, las condiciones de síntesis utilizadas. Algunas de estas condiciones, como los rangos de potencial, se habían establecido previamente para los WE1D. Así, la microscopía SECM se muestra como alternativa a la CV para la medida de la electroactividad superficial y de la distribución del material electrocatalítico para este tipo de muestras. Además de la caracterización electroquímica, se realizó también una caracterización morfológica de las superficies electródicas mediante la toma de imágenes por medio de la microscopía electrónica de barrido (SEM) y del microscopio estereoscópico. El estudio voltamétrico efectuado para el sistema amarante/H2SO4 con los electrodos textiles WE1D y el electrodo GCE permitió el establecimiento de los potenciales de trabajo a los que realizar la electrólisis de oxidación y de reducción a potencial controlado con los electrodos WE2D, WE2D/Pt y WE2D/PANI-Pt. Con los electrodos de trabajo anteriores, se llevan a cabo diferentes electrólisis de electroreducción y electrooxidación a una disolución de amarante en medio sulfúrico utilizando una célula en forma de ¿H¿ con separación de compartimentos. El seguimiento del proceso de degradación de la molécula de amarante y por ende de la decoloración de la disolución, se efectuó por medio de la cromatografía líquida de alta resolución (HPLC) y las espectroscopías UV-visible, fluorescencia de emisión e infrarroja por transformada de Fourier con reflexión total atenuada (FTIR-ATR). Los resultados de eficiencia obtenidos en las electrólisis confirman la elección de los potenciales de trabajo seleccionados. El porcentaje de decoloración tanto con las electroreducciones como con las electrooxidaciones se sitúa por encima del 90 %. También se comprobó que la presencia de platino trae consigo una significativa reducción del tiempo de electrólisis para la electrooxidación a 900 mV. Los análisis de los espectros UV, de fluorescencia de emisión y FTIR-ATR permitieron establecer diferencias significativas en relación con el tipo de proceso electroquímico (electroreducción/electrooxidación), tipo de electrodo (modificado/no modificado) y la presencia/ausencia de cloruros en el medio de reacción. Con este trabajo se establece una metodología de cara a futuros estudios con otros colorantes azoicos utilizando electrodos basados en el tejido de fibra de carbono. / Fernández Sáez, J. (2014). Análisis por microscopía electroquímica de barrido de superficies electroactivas y desarrollo-caracterización de electrodos basados en un tejido de fibra de carbono [Tesis doctoral]. Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/38239

Vid framställning av papper och pappersmassa krävs en stor mängd energi och även stora mängder vatten som med fördel tas från en närliggande sjö eller vattendrag. Avloppsvattnet passerar flera olika reningssteg såsom mekanisk, kemisk och biologisk rening innan det återinförs till recipienten. Vid aerob biologisk rening sker en nedbrytning och oxidation av det organiska materialet som utförs av mikroorganismer. Aeroba mikroorganismer kräver närvaro av syre varvid luft tillsätts till dammen. Luftningen utgör drygt hälften av det externa reningsverkets totala energibehov och försvåras av extraktivämnen som finns i träden. Vid Stora Enso Skoghalls bruk används en luftad damm som biologisk rening. Det finns problem med att få syret att räcka till i hela dammen. Om ett försteg placeras innan dammen skulle detta kunna bryta ned en del av de syreförbrukande ämnena. Förstegets utformning skulle vara en MBBR (Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor) innehållande bärare där termofila bakterier bildar biofilm. Två olika försöksuppställningar byggdes upp i ett laboratorium på Karlstads Universitet innehållande MBBR och luftade dammar. De luftade dammarna skulle likna Skoghalls bruks luftade damm med samma uppehållstid och innehålla samma sorts mikroorganismer. Processvattnet hämtades från Skoghalls bruk och pumpades kontinuerligt in till försöksuppställningarna. Vattnet togs från två olika ställen på bruket och innehöll dels CTMP och dels CTMP blandat med vatten från blekeriet och indunstningen. För utvärderingar av försöken utfördes analyser av COD, TOC, SÄ, SVI, ytspänning, extraktivämnen samt mikroskopering. Resultatet uppvisade en relativt jämn COD-och TOC-reduktion för de luftade dammarna på runt 70 %, vilket är jämförbara värden med Skoghalls bruks luftade damm. För det termofila MBBR-försteget med temperaturen 45 °C uppvisades en reduktionskapacitet på 30 – 40 %. Resultatet vid körning med vatten innehållande endast CTMP påvisades en reduktion på 30 %. Mätning av ytspänning och extraktivämnen ger en indikation på om syresättningen av avloppsvattnet kan bli effektivare. Det visade sig att biofilmen i de termofila stegen är mycket känslig och relativt enkel att slå ut om förhållandena för de termofila bakterierna inte är optimala eller om inkommande vatten innehåller någon giftig substans. Bioslammet i samtliga luftade dammar bestod av både bakterier, protozoer och metazoer. I referensdammen uppvisades stora och kompakta flockar medan det för dammarna som föregicks av termofila MBBR påvisade mindre slam och mindre kompakta flockar. För dammen innehållande endast CTMP påvisades förutom att flockarna var små även flytslam och skumproblem. / The production of pulp and paper requires a large amount of energy and also large amounts of water which, by advantage, can be taken from a nearby lake or river. The wastewater passes through several different purification steps, such as mechanical, chemical and biological treatment before being reintroduced to the recipient. During aerobic biological treatment, a degradation and oxidation of the organic material occurs and is performed by microorganisms which require oxygen. Aeration consumes about half of the external plant's total energy and is aggravated by extractives present in the trees. At Stora Enso Skoghall mill an aerated pond is used as biological treatment, but there are troubles to get the oxygen to last for the entire pond. If a pre-treatment is placed before the pond this would be able to reduce the substances which demands oxygen. The implementation of the pre-treatment would be a MBBR (Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor) containing carriers and where thermophilic bacteria form biofilms. The experimental setups were built up in a laboratory at the University of Karlstad. The aerated ponds would resemble the aerated pond at Skoghall mill, with an identical retention time and contain equivalent microorganisms. The wastewater was continuously pumped into the experimental setups and was received from Skoghall mill and contained only CTMP water and CTMP mixed with water from the bleach plant and evaporation plant. As evaluation of the experiments analyzes of COD, TOC, SS, SVI, surface tension, extractives and microscopy were done. The results showed a relatively uniform COD and TOC reduction for the aerated ponds at around 70 %, which is comparable with the real pond at Skoghall mill. For the thermophilic MBBR with a temperature of 45° C and with probe 10-water, a capacity of reduction at 30 - 40% was noticed. The result with water containing only CTMP showed a reduction of 30%. Measurements of surface tension and extractives show if the concentration of extractives is decreasing in the thermophilic pre-treatments and also in the aerated ponds, which indicates a more effective oxygenation of the water. It was also found that the biofilm in the thermophilic stages are very sensitive and relatively easy to decimate if the conditions for the thermophilic bacteria are not optimal or if the incoming water contains any toxic substance. The sludge in all aerated ponds consisted of bacteria, protozoa and metazoa. The reference pond showed large and dense flocks while for the ponds that were preceded by thermophilic MBBR indicated less sludge and less dense flocks. For pond containing CTMP-water the flocks were small, but in addition, floating sludge was detected and foam problems arose.

M. Tech., (Faculty of Applied and Computer Science), Vaal University of Technology / There is huge concern in the mining and industries to manage wastewater prior to discharge into the environment. It is generally cheaper and cost reducing for industries to treat its own wastewater before discharging to the local authority sewer. Dense Media Separation (DMS) Powders Company produces milled and atoms ferro-silicon by pyro-metallurgical process. DMS Powders uses municipal water for all processes taking place in the plants. The water used during the processes of milled and atom ferrosilicon powder is discharged into the environment without being treated. By treating this process wastewater before discharging will result in reducing the water consumption by recycling and the penalty costs for polluting the environment. The primary objective of this study is to find suitable method for treatment of DMS Powders’ process water using selected membrane processes. Membrane processes are better choice compared to traditional physical/chemical treatment processes, due to their advantages of approving water quality, no phase change, no chemical addition and simple operation. Two commercial membranes namely; NF-, and SW30HR are used in the treatment of DMS Powders process water. These membranes were purchased from (Dow/Filmtec) Manufacturing Company (Pty) situated in South Africa. Membranes were characterised by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) and Fourie Transform Infrared (FTIR) instruments. For synthetic water three membranes (NF- , NF90, and SW30HR) are investigated for the study. The fluxibility indicated that NF- membrane has higher flux compared to NF90 and SW30HR membranes. All the three membranes were very good in terms of rejection on single salts. Fouling was studied on DMS Powders process water. Concentration polarization was formed on NF- and SW30HR membranes investigations on selected membranes conclude that NF- membrane will be the suitable membrane for treatment of DMS Powders process water because of its high fluxibility and rejection. Discharged effluent of DMS Powders could comply with the legislature and environmental pollution could be minimised. The study revealed that fouling does occur during treatment of process water. SW30HR showed that M9 Plant had more fouling for M9 samples than other Plants (M8A and M8B). It was because of higher concentrations in suspended solids.or M8A, M8B and M9 process water.