Securing universal, safe, inclusive and affordable water and sanitation services, as targeted by SDG 6, is a challenge for urban settings. Particularly in informal settlements of Mukuru, Nairobi, were its crowded population, insecure land tenure and location in areas prone to environmental hazards places their inhabitants at greater risk of water and sanitation insecurity. Policy and research approaches to measure water and sanitation insecurity lack of a standard tool to assess the multiple dimensions that account for inequalities at the individual level. This study aimed to assess individual water and sanitation insecurity at Mukuru SPA. A novel 21 item insecurity scale was developed addressing water and sanitation availability, accessibility, affordability, perceived water quality, inadequate sanitation and hygiene. Three segments of the Mukuru SPA were selected. Data was collected from 302 individuals through a household survey. Statistical analysis was performed with SAS University software to identify water and sanitation conditions in the area, measure levels of water and sanitation insecurity, examine associations of insecurity levels and socio-economic characteristics and test the validity of the tool. Results indicated that most residents used water sources and sanitation facilities considered improved by global monitoring standards. Nonetheless, more than 50% of the residents of two of the studied segments had higher levels of water and sanitation insecurity. Individuals that were females, belonged to the lowest income ranges or that resided in young female or young male (<18 years old) headed-household were found more vulnerable to water and sanitation insecurity. Significant correlations of water and sanitation insecurity with time spent collecting water and sanitation cost/day, as well as correlations with number of trips to collect water and water cost/day validated the use of the tool. / Att borga för universella, säkra, inkluderande och prisvärda vatten- och sanitetstjänster, som riktas mot SDG 6 (Sustainable Development Goal), är en utmaning inom urbana miljöer. Särskilt i de informella, överbefolkade bosättningarna i Mukuru, Nairobi, belägna i förorenade och utsatta områden med oklara ägarförhållanden av marken, utsätts invånarna för ökade sanitära risker kopplade till vattenkvaliteten. Policy- och forskningsmetoder för att mäta vatten-och sanitetssäkerhet saknar ett standardverktyg för att bedöma de många dimensioner som orsakas av ojämlikhet på individnivå. Denna studie syftade till att bedöma individuell vatten- och sanitet osäkerhet hos Mukuru SPA (Special Planning Area). Baserat på 21 punkter har en ny vatten- och sanitet osäkerhetsskala utvecklats för att undersöka tillgänglighet, tillgång, överkomlighet, upplevd vattenkvalitet, sanitet och hygien. Tre områden av Mukuru SPA valdes. Data samlades in från 302 individer genom en enkätundersökning riktad till hushåll. En statistisk analys utfördes med hjälp av SAS University-programvara för att identifiera vatten och sanitetsförhållanden i området, mäta nivåer av vatten- och sanitet osäkerhet, undersöka kopplingar mellan graden av sårbarhet och socioekonomiska förhållanden, samt testa verktygets validitet. Resultaten visar att de flesta boende använde vattenkällor och sanitetsinstallationer vilka anses ha förbättrats med hjälp av internationella övervakningsstandarder. Detta till trots hade mer än 50% av invånarna i två av de studerade områdena höga nivåer av vatten och sanitet osäkerhet. Kvinnor, tillhörande de områden där medelinkomsten var lägst, boende i hushåll med en ung man eller kvinna (<18 år gamla) som “husbonde”, visade sig mest sårbara för vatten- och sanitet osäkerhet. Tydliga samband mellan vatten-och sanitet osäkerhet och kostnad per dag och tid för att hämta vatten, samt korrelation mellan antal resor för att hämta vatten och vattenkostnad per dag, validerar användningen av verktyget. Verktyget kan hjälpa lokala myndigheter att snabbt överblicka vatten-och sanitation osäkerhet och rikta resurser mot de mest sårbara personerna inför de planerade satsningarna på höjd levnadsstandard i Mukuru SPA. Det är önskvärt att ta hänsyn till de olika behov som könsskillnad medför, såväl som att säkerställa kostnadsmässigt överkomliga vatten- och sanitetstjänster för de mest sårbara grupperna i Mukuru SPA. Ett vattenprov bör åtfölja användningen av verktyget för att förstärka tillförlitligheten i mätningar av vattensäkerhet.

Yes / Human rights to water and sanitation have been widely recognised in legal instruments at the international, regional, and national levels of governance. More awareness of states’ obligations has provided additional impetus to promote human rights in policy advocacy. The international non-governmental organisation WaterAid, as a non-state actor specialising in the water, sanitation, and hygiene services (WASH) sector, adopts a human rights-based approach (HRBA) to WASH programming. This paper draws on the experiences from WaterAid WASH projects in four countries – Nepal, Ghana, Mali, and Burkina Faso, to evaluate the practical impacts of the HRBA to ensure that governments fulfil their responsibility to realise universal access to water and sanitation services in different contexts. The outcomes highlight that three important contributions of the HRBA: (1) generates greater awareness among rightsholders and duty bearers about responsibilities and entitlements over safe drinking water and sanitation; (2) promotes constructive engagement between the government and rightsholders; and (3) equips people with the motivation, skills, and agency which are critical dimensions to work on sustainable WASH. The WASH sector should, therefore, embrace the power of human rights and invest in the specific activities and frameworks to integrate human rights into systems strengthening the WASH sector, while continuing to analyse and learn how to adapt and improve the approach in different contexts.

Este trabalho de pesquisa insere-se no campo do desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias e metodologias de automação, apresentando uma nova proposta a ser implementada na gestão do ciclo de saneamento, com o intuito de otimizar o uso dos recursos hídricos e contribuir para o desenvolvimento sustentável. A metodologia desenvolvida, denominada Sistema Integrado da Gestão Automatizada de Saneamento Inteligente (SIGASI), é constituída por uma arquitetura de hardware e software que integra Sistemas Especialistas (Inteligência Artificial) e Sistemas Supervisórios em tempo real de operação. A proposta foi validada virtualmente em uma Estação Elevatória de Água, um subprocesso dentro do conjunto de operações do ciclo de saneamento, segundo estratégia e critérios empregados pelas atuais empresas de água. Os testes foram realizados tendo em vista metas fixadas em função da redução de consumo e despesas com energia elétrica pelo bombeamento de água, redução do índice de perda de água no sistema de abastecimento com o emprego de sistemas inteligentes, otimização dos quantitativos de insumos na produção de água, otimização e embasamento das ações de manutenção do ciclo do saneamento e geração de banco de dados em tempo real. Os resultados aferidos mostram que o SIGASI traz muitos benefícios técnicos e econômicos em comparação ao sistema de gestão empregado, atualmente, pelos gestores das empresas de saneamento do país. Estes benefícios são: maior embasamento na tomada de ações de manutenção, maior rapidez na resposta às perturbações do processo, sistematização dos procedimentos empregados para tomada de decisão, acúmulo de conhecimentos dos especialistas atuantes na condução dos subprocessos do ciclo de saneamento e tomada de decisão automática, em tempo real, inclusive em setores ainda não automatizados. O SIGASI, quando e se implementado, será uma poderosa ferramenta de engenharia na gestão dos recursos hídricos e consequentemente, também constituirá medida importante dentro de procedimentos voltados ao desenvolvimento sustentável. / This research is integrated into the field of development of new automation technologies and methodologies and submits a new proposal to manage the water and sanitation cycle intended to optimize the use of water resources and contribute to sustainable development. The methodology developed, referred to as Integrated System of Intelligent Automated Management of Water and Sanitation (SIGASI), consists of a hardware and software architecture that integrates Expert Systems (Artificial Intelligence) and Supervisory Systems in real-time. The proposal has been virtually validated in a Water Pumping Station, a sub-process within the group of operations of the water and sanitation cycle, in accordance with the strategy and criteria employed by existing water and sanitation companies. Tests have been performed considering the targets established for reduction of energy consumption and expenses from water pumping, reduction of the water loss index in supply systems with the use of intelligent systems, optimization of quantities of inputs in water production, optimization of and technical basis for maintenance actions of the water and sanitation cycle, and generation of a real-time database. The results show that the SIGASI brings a number of technical and economic benefits when compared to the management system currently used by decision makers in Brazilian water and sanitation companies. These benefits are: more robust technical basis for maintenance actions, faster responses to disturbances in the processes, standardization of decision-making procedures, acquisition of knowledge by specialists in charge of sub-processes of the water and sanitation cycle, and automatic and real-time decisions, inclusive in non-automated sectors. The SIGASI when and if implemented will be a powerful engineering tool to manage water resources and, consequently, an important component of the procedures towards sustainable development.

In Dhaka, Bangladesh over five million people live in low-income, informal settlements (bustees) with limited access to basic services, secure land tenure and political voice. Whilst collective action among the urban poor is central to accessing affordable services and - when taken to scale - a broader politics of 'redistribution, recognition and representation' (Fraser 1997; 2005), little is known about how Dhaka's slum dwellers organise, and the extent to which this is (or can be) transformative. To deepen our understanding, this thesis utilises collective action theory to examine intra-group dynamics, the instrumental value of groups and broader context of urban governance that enables and/or constrains certain forms of collective action in Dhaka's bustees. Case studies of Community Based Organisations (CBOs) in three bustees are used as a lens to explore how slum dwellers organise to obtain basic services, such as water and sanitation. CBOs are disaggregated into two main types (externally or NGO-initiated and internally or leader-initiated) and sub-types (formal and informal), with three sub-themes; participation (leadership and membership), function (activities and responsibilities) and outcomes (equity and sustainability). A mixed qualitative toolkit, including in-depth observations of CBOs, interviews with CBO leaders, members, non-members and key-informant interviews with NGO, government officials and citywide urban poor groups, reveals the complex relationship between collective action, service provision and urban governance in Dhaka. Two key findings emerge. Firstly, similar patterns in participation and outcomes are observed regardless of CBO type, whereby politically-affiliated local leaders and house owners create, enter and/or use CBOs to address their strategic agendas, and reinforce their authority. This demonstrates that, as opposed to bounded groups, CBOs are in fact nodes of interconnected individuals, some of whom are better able to participate in (and benefit from) collective action, than others. Secondly, although collective action plays an increasingly important role in service provision in Dhaka (especially legal water supply), it is largely practical in nature (i.e. addressing immediate needs). In cases where it is more strategic (i.e. to access land and housing), or both practical and strategic (i.e. obtaining legal water supply to secure land), certain male local leaders seek to benefit over others. In all cases, transformative collective action is constrained. This, it is argued, relates to the broader context of urban governance that enables certain forms of collective action, while constraining others, in Dhaka's bustees. Three (interrelated) spheres of urban governance are identified as particularly important: 1) patron-centric state; 2) risk-averse and market-oriented development sector; and 3) clientelistic society. Whilst existing collective action theory has value for understanding intra-group dynamics, fieldwork suggests that the urban governance context is the overarching factor affecting collective action in Dhaka's bustees. The thesis concludes with potential ways forward.

Este trabalho de pesquisa insere-se no campo do desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias e metodologias de automação, apresentando uma nova proposta a ser implementada na gestão do ciclo de saneamento, com o intuito de otimizar o uso dos recursos hídricos e contribuir para o desenvolvimento sustentável. A metodologia desenvolvida, denominada Sistema Integrado da Gestão Automatizada de Saneamento Inteligente (SIGASI), é constituída por uma arquitetura de hardware e software que integra Sistemas Especialistas (Inteligência Artificial) e Sistemas Supervisórios em tempo real de operação. A proposta foi validada virtualmente em uma Estação Elevatória de Água, um subprocesso dentro do conjunto de operações do ciclo de saneamento, segundo estratégia e critérios empregados pelas atuais empresas de água. Os testes foram realizados tendo em vista metas fixadas em função da redução de consumo e despesas com energia elétrica pelo bombeamento de água, redução do índice de perda de água no sistema de abastecimento com o emprego de sistemas inteligentes, otimização dos quantitativos de insumos na produção de água, otimização e embasamento das ações de manutenção do ciclo do saneamento e geração de banco de dados em tempo real. Os resultados aferidos mostram que o SIGASI traz muitos benefícios técnicos e econômicos em comparação ao sistema de gestão empregado, atualmente, pelos gestores das empresas de saneamento do país. Estes benefícios são: maior embasamento na tomada de ações de manutenção, maior rapidez na resposta às perturbações do processo, sistematização dos procedimentos empregados para tomada de decisão, acúmulo de conhecimentos dos especialistas atuantes na condução dos subprocessos do ciclo de saneamento e tomada de decisão automática, em tempo real, inclusive em setores ainda não automatizados. O SIGASI, quando e se implementado, será uma poderosa ferramenta de engenharia na gestão dos recursos hídricos e consequentemente, também constituirá medida importante dentro de procedimentos voltados ao desenvolvimento sustentável. / This research is integrated into the field of development of new automation technologies and methodologies and submits a new proposal to manage the water and sanitation cycle intended to optimize the use of water resources and contribute to sustainable development. The methodology developed, referred to as Integrated System of Intelligent Automated Management of Water and Sanitation (SIGASI), consists of a hardware and software architecture that integrates Expert Systems (Artificial Intelligence) and Supervisory Systems in real-time. The proposal has been virtually validated in a Water Pumping Station, a sub-process within the group of operations of the water and sanitation cycle, in accordance with the strategy and criteria employed by existing water and sanitation companies. Tests have been performed considering the targets established for reduction of energy consumption and expenses from water pumping, reduction of the water loss index in supply systems with the use of intelligent systems, optimization of quantities of inputs in water production, optimization of and technical basis for maintenance actions of the water and sanitation cycle, and generation of a real-time database. The results show that the SIGASI brings a number of technical and economic benefits when compared to the management system currently used by decision makers in Brazilian water and sanitation companies. These benefits are: more robust technical basis for maintenance actions, faster responses to disturbances in the processes, standardization of decision-making procedures, acquisition of knowledge by specialists in charge of sub-processes of the water and sanitation cycle, and automatic and real-time decisions, inclusive in non-automated sectors. The SIGASI when and if implemented will be a powerful engineering tool to manage water resources and, consequently, an important component of the procedures towards sustainable development.

L'extension des réseaux d'électricité, d'eau et d'assainissement dans les villes en développement est a priori compliquée par l'absence ou les déficiences de la planification urbaine. Les modalités de viabilisation des quartiers irréguliers à Delhi et Lima sont ici analysées comme des mécanismes sociotechniques révélateurs de dynamiques de fabrique urbaine. En effet, au quotidien, les entreprises installent des poteaux et des tuyaux dans les quartiers non-planifiés. Des innovations techniques, sociales et institutionnelles permettent d'y étendre les réseaux ; l'absence de planification n'est donc pas un obstacle à la viabilisation. Toutefois, ce processus est sous-optimal : la conduite des travaux est désordonnée, l'imprévisibilité limite l'élaboration de stratégies, et les injonctions politiques peuvent être contradictoires. De tels déficits de coordination génèrent des incertitudes qui sont difficiles à surmonter pour les entreprises de services. Il y a néanmoins des pistes prometteuses pour intervenir dans les quartiers non-planifiés : des dispositifs alternatifs de desserte existent qui peuvent être promus ; des données et plans informels satisfont les besoins de connaissances sur la ville et gagneraient à être valorisés ; et le dessin et la préservation de la trame viaire s'avèrent déterminants pour permettre une consolidation urbaine cohérente, progressive et durable. L'analyse de l'extension des réseaux permet d'identifier des instruments clés pour l'action publique dans les villes en développement, et offre ainsi de nouvelles perspectives à la planification urbaine pour aménager la ville existante et préparer stratégiquement l'urbanisation encore à venir / The extension of electricity, water and sanitation networks in developing cities seems to be a priori complicated by the lack or the deficiencies of urban planning. The modalities of infrastructure deployment into the irregular settlements of Delhi and Lima are here analysed as sociotechnical mechanisms, indicative of the dynamics of the urban fabric. Indeed, on a daily basis, utility firms do install pipes and poles in unplanned settlements. Some technical, social and institutional innovations make the extension of networks possible; the lack of urban planning is therefore not an obstacle to service extension. Nonetheless, this process is not optimal: the conduct of public works is disordered, unpredictability hampers the elaboration of strategies and political injunctions can be contradictory. Such coordination deficits generate uncertainties which are more difficult to overcome for utility firms. There are nevertheless some promising leads for intervention in unplanned settlements: alternative devices for servicing exist that can be promoted; some informal plans and data satisfy the needs for knowledge on the city and would be well worth valuing; and the design and the preservation of the road layout appear to be decisive to allow a coherent, progressive and sustainable urban consolidation process. The analysis of network extension helps to identify key instruments for public action in developing cities, and thus offers new perspectives for urban planning to develop the existing city as well as to strategically prepare for the urbanisation yet to come

The Earth consists of approximately 70 percentage of water, but only 1 percent is at present suitable to drink with no sanitation. Water is vital for human life and should be accessible to all human beings, stated even through its legal definition. Reviewed in this paper is that globalization has over the years brought both stunning benefits and openings for many individuals in regards to water and sanitation. However, these opportunities are yet not available for all, since currently approximately 2.5 billion of the world’s population lack access to sanitation, and for about 1 billion individual’s access to safe drinking water is absent. Harmed health leading to death is a crucial consequence of this enormous lack. International coherence and acknowledgement for this challenging situation is at present part of the global agenda, and through this, water and sanitation have been recognized as a fundamental human right by the United Nations (UN) and implemented in its legal framework. However, its definition can be questioned. The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) declare that water shall be available and accessible for all human beings. Within several of the UNs adopted documents, water shall additionally be sufficient, affordable, safe and acceptable, and contain a certain standard of quality. Nevertheless, obstacles occur regarding these requirements through its interpretation. The question arises if the right within its classification can guarantee the fundamental right to water and sanitation to be incorporated, compatible and functional in human rights law.  Besides this, the role of sustainable development and, regional and national legislations in the implementation process is additionally addressed to acknowledge how the right is ensured and protected.

Cette thèse étudie les inégalités environnementales dans un objectif de justice sociale. La première partie propose une définition interdisciplinaire de ces inégalités afin de capter son caractère multidimensionnel et de montrer son utilité en économie de l’environnement et en économie écologique. À partir de la littérature en philosophie économique, le caractère juste ou injuste des inégalités environnementales est ensuite analysé en mobilisant différentes conceptions égalitaristes de la justice et en considérant l’existence d’autres objectifs sociétaux. À la suite de ce travail théorique, la seconde partie s’articule autour d’une application aux enjeux de l’accès à l’eau et à l’assainissement au Brésil. Après avoir présenté la situation relative à ces services dans le contexte brésilien, les déterminants socioéconomiques et institutionnels de cet accès sont identifiés par des analyses économétriques sur des données à l’échelle des ménages. Ces analyses permettent de mettre en lumière des déterminants au cœur des problématiques de justice environnementale comme le revenu, l’ethnicité, mais aussi le rôle des États en ayant recours à des modèles multi-niveaux. En utilisant un indicateur d’accès à l’eau et à l’assainissement construit à partir d’une analyse factorielle, les inégalités associées à ces services sont ensuite mesurées par différentes méthodes correspondant à chacune des conceptions de la justice développées dans la première partie / This thesis studies the environmental inequalities in an objective of social justice. The first part offers an interdisciplinary definition of these inequalities in order to catch their multidimensional nature and to show their usefulness in environmental economics and ecological economics. Based on a philosophy of economics perspective, the fairness of environmental inequalities is analysed by using different egalitarian conceptions of justice with a consideration of the existence of other societal objectives. Following this theoretical development, the second part is devoted to an analysis of the issues of access to water and sanitation services in the context of Brazil. After a discussion over the situation related to the water and sanitation sector in Brazil, the socioeconomic and institutional determinants of the access to these services are identified using econometric analyses at the household level. These analyses enable to expose key determinants in the perspective of environmental justice including income level and ethnicity. In addition, they show the role of the state level thanks to the use of multilevel models. By using an indicator of the access to water and sanitation services elaborated through a factor analysis, the inequalities associated to these services are then measured by different methods which correspond to each conception of justice developed in the first part.

No description available.

La thèse questionne les difficultés de mise en œuvre de la politiquede l'eau et de l'assainissement à Mayotte depuis la fin des années 2000, sur fond de départementalisation. Elle étudie les interactions entre les vulnérabilités sociales,politiques et institutionnelles qui conditionnent les formes de l'action, les avancées et l'efficacité de cette politique sur le territoire mahorais. Sur la base d'une méthodologie de recherche à la fois classique (entretiens et questionnaires) et originale (simulation multi-agents), elle analyse successivement les pratiques et représentations sociales de l'environnement, de l'eau et de l'assainissement à Mayotte ; les fragilités de l'organisation institutionnelle plus générale (Etat et Syndicat des eaux) pour la mise en œuvre de l'action publique et, enfin, les capacités politiques des élus locaux à être les relais territoriaux des exigences normatives régaliennes. Elle met en lumière la résistance de modes d'organisation traditionnels et de certains fondements culturels mahorais face aux changements organisationnels initiés « d'en haut » ainsi que la genèse d'un processus de vulnérabilisation sociale liés aux modalités mêmes de l'action publique. / The thesis highlights the difficulties of implementing the policywater and sanitation in Mayotte since the late 2000s, on the bottom of departmentalization. It studies the interactions between social vulnerabilities, policies, and institutional forms that determine the action, the progress and effectiveness of this policy in Mayotte. Based on a research methodology that is both classic (interviews and questionnaires) and original (multi-agent simulation), it successively analyzes the practices and the social representations of the environment, water and sanitation in Mayotte, the fragility of the broader institutional (State and Union waters) for the implementation of public policy and, finally, the political capacity of local officials to be territorial relay sovereign normative requirements. It highlights the strength of traditional modes of organization and some Mayotte cultural foundations to organizational changes initiated "from above" and the genesis of a process of social vulnerabilization related to the same terms of public policy.