This dissertation focuses on the interdependency between causality, context and history in selected novels by E.L. Doctorow: The Book of Daniel (1971), Ragtime (1974), Loon Lake (1980), World's Fair (1985) and The Waterworks (1995). Doctorow' s fiction is marked by an apparent paradox: while it underscores fictionalization and sometimes distorts late nineteenth and twentieth century American history, it simultaneously purports to be a valid representation of the past. The novelist's implementation of causality which is a significant component of "the power of freedom", constitutes fiction's ability to convey truth without relying on factuality or "the power of the regime". According to Doctorow, the documented fact is already an interpretation which induces the perception that all documentation is subjective. The author composes fictional contexts that disregard the pretence of reliability in non-fictional texts. Doctorow focuses on how contexts are formed: the contexts are usually defined through the experience of characters who have been exposed to an event or events that were generated by motivations, for example, emotions of fear, racism, conviction, desire and greed, i.e., the catalysts that form history. Each of the novels discussed focuses on various aspects of society and the fate of specific individuals. The Book of Daniel proposes that a human being can only survive physically and spiritually by remaining a social entity. Ragtime focuses on the persistent illusion in history that society is fragmented. The various "faces" of society encountered by the main character in Loon Lake, mirror one another and reflect spiritual poverty. Consequently, Loon Lake demonstrates that the search for personal fulfilment does not require a physical journey, but an inner or spiritual exploration. World's Fair postulates that reality is never exclusively defined by either fortune or misfortune alone. The Waterworks offers perhaps one of the most significant evaluations of history as it perceives that the world in which we live is essentially unknown to us. We have neither the practical means to obtain a total perspective of what occurs in society (especially among politicians and the financially powerful) nor do we have sufficient skills to distinguish what the motivations of individuals' actions really entail. / Thesis (M.A.) Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 2000.

This dissertation explores how water technology transformed cultural practices and attitudes towards water through the restructuring of architectural and social space over the course of the twentieth century. For social reformers and architects alike, water’s place in the Japanese dwelling reflected a desire to address broader societal concerns with public health, gender norms, and resource scarcity through the rationalization of domestic and public space. Tracing the flow of water from watershed to kitchen tap, this study considers how the renovation of Tokyo waterworks restructured communal practices surrounding water, how advancements in architectural design and technology influenced the ways families used water in the home, and how the state positioned the dwelling at the forefront of water-management campaigns. Combining methodologies from architectural history with environmental, socioeconomic, and cultural history, the inquiry crosses multiple scales to show how design mediates the continuously changing relationship between human bodies and the natural resources they consume. It draws on technical materials such as house plans, equipment manuals, and professional publications, blending these with popular-culture sources such as newspaper advertisements, television commercials, and public-service announcements, as well as manga and anime. While advancements in the architectural and technological design of water in twentieth-century Japan made access to natural resources more efficient, convenient, and hygienic—an enormous benefit for the (mostly) women tasked with water’s management—the high-tech “Washlet” toilets and prefabricated “unit baths” ubiquitous in Japan today gradually obscured from view water’s origin and waste’s destination, significantly restructuring the relationship between human beings and the natural environment.

Ce mémoire porte sur l’étude de deux réseaux d’eau distincts, soit celui de la ville d’Arthabaska et celui de la ville de Victoriaville. Nous souhaitons éclairer le rôle joué par les facteurs environnementaux, naturels et urbains, au cours du processus ayant mené à l’implantation de réseaux d’eau potable et d’eaux usées dans les deux villes à l’étude. Divers travaux ont traité de la mise en place des réseaux d’aqueduc et d’égout à la grandeur du Canada. Toutefois, ce sont essentiellement les grandes villes comme Montréal ou Toronto qui ont retenu l’attention de l’histoire urbaine, politique et environnementale canadienne. L’objectif de cette démarche consiste à montrer que le milieu physique rural doit être incorporé à l’analyse comme élément vivant qui se transforme, qui influence et qui est influencé à son tour par l’être humain, puisqu’un et l’autre sont en constante interaction. Nous soutenons que la mise en place et le développement de réseaux d’eau sont influencés par le territoire dans lequel ils sont implantés et qu’ils ne peuvent pas être correctement analysés sans celui-ci. Afin de mettre l’espace au cœur de l’étude, nous avons mené une analyse des villes d’Arthabaska et de Victoriaville en considérant la géographie de la région à l’aide des cartes et des plans d’assurance-incendie, en plus de consulter des documents officiels et des articles tirés des journaux locaux. / This thesis focuses on the study of two separate water systems, namely that of city of Arthabaska and city of Victoriaville. We wish to clarify the role of natural and urban environmental factors in the process that led to the establishment of drinking water and wastewater systems in the two cities under consideration. Various studies have dealt with the implantation of waterworks and sewer systems across the country. However, it is mainly the large cities such as Montreal and Toronto that have caught the attention of the canadian political, urban, and environmental history. The objective of this approach is to show that the natural physical environment must be incorporated into the analysis as a living element that transforms, which influences and is influenced in turn by humans, since both are in constant interaction. We argue that the establishment and development of water systems are influenced by the territory in which they operate and they can not be correctly analyzed otherwise. To put the surroundings in the heart of the study, we conducted an analysis of city of Arthabaska and city of Victoriaville considering the geography of the area using maps and fire insurance plans, in addition to the analysis of official documents and articles from local newspapers.

Ce mémoire porte sur l’étude de deux réseaux d’eau distincts, soit celui de la ville d’Arthabaska et celui de la ville de Victoriaville. Nous souhaitons éclairer le rôle joué par les facteurs environnementaux, naturels et urbains, au cours du processus ayant mené à l’implantation de réseaux d’eau potable et d’eaux usées dans les deux villes à l’étude. Divers travaux ont traité de la mise en place des réseaux d’aqueduc et d’égout à la grandeur du Canada. Toutefois, ce sont essentiellement les grandes villes comme Montréal ou Toronto qui ont retenu l’attention de l’histoire urbaine, politique et environnementale canadienne. L’objectif de cette démarche consiste à montrer que le milieu physique rural doit être incorporé à l’analyse comme élément vivant qui se transforme, qui influence et qui est influencé à son tour par l’être humain, puisqu’un et l’autre sont en constante interaction. Nous soutenons que la mise en place et le développement de réseaux d’eau sont influencés par le territoire dans lequel ils sont implantés et qu’ils ne peuvent pas être correctement analysés sans celui-ci. Afin de mettre l’espace au cœur de l’étude, nous avons mené une analyse des villes d’Arthabaska et de Victoriaville en considérant la géographie de la région à l’aide des cartes et des plans d’assurance-incendie, en plus de consulter des documents officiels et des articles tirés des journaux locaux. / This thesis focuses on the study of two separate water systems, namely that of city of Arthabaska and city of Victoriaville. We wish to clarify the role of natural and urban environmental factors in the process that led to the establishment of drinking water and wastewater systems in the two cities under consideration. Various studies have dealt with the implantation of waterworks and sewer systems across the country. However, it is mainly the large cities such as Montreal and Toronto that have caught the attention of the canadian political, urban, and environmental history. The objective of this approach is to show that the natural physical environment must be incorporated into the analysis as a living element that transforms, which influences and is influenced in turn by humans, since both are in constant interaction. We argue that the establishment and development of water systems are influenced by the territory in which they operate and they can not be correctly analyzed otherwise. To put the surroundings in the heart of the study, we conducted an analysis of city of Arthabaska and city of Victoriaville considering the geography of the area using maps and fire insurance plans, in addition to the analysis of official documents and articles from local newspapers.

This research project was aimed at monitoring the quality of drinking water that is supplied to the inhabitants of small villages. The quality of drinking water produced by small waterworks in South Bohemia, in municipalities Mazelov, Ortvínovice, Doubravka and Rábín, was studied. Sanitary analyses of drinking water samples carried out by the waterworks operators in 2004-2009 showed some variability in the concentrations of free chlorine, nitrates, pH, turbidity and the content of Escherichia coli in all the waterworks during the investigated period. The hypothesis assuming that the quality of drinking water produced by water treatment from small water sources is stable and that it does not vary in some key indicators, such as nitrates, the contents of Escherichia coli etc., throughout the year was not confirmed. The other hypothesis assuming that the number of small water sources used for public drinking water supplies decreases during the period was confirmed. The causes of these changes depend on many factors, such as the location and source of drinking water, the type of treatment plant, and, last but not least, the quality of service and economic potential of the waterworks operators play a negative role.

Abstract The efficiency of public service provision has been a subject of debate for several decades. Discussions that are centred around whether public or private service provision is more efficient are still active around the world and also concern water and sewage services. Additionally, waterworks are facing tightening quality and environmental requirements, while ageing infrastructure and rapidly growing repair debt must also be addressed. This study aims to identify the actions that are required to improve waterworks performance without compromising service quality. The objective is to find both internal and external factors that will improve efficiency. Despite the clear pressure for new solutions, there is only a limited amount of research on the topic, which provides further justification for this study. This dissertation has adopted a case study approach with multiple data sources in order to provide as diverse, detailed and profound information regarding the Finnish water and sewage sector. Data sources such as interviews, questionnaire and publicly available financial data were used as a basis for analysis. The results of this study indicate that the external factors that influence the performance of waterworks include legislation, environmental issues, population density and municipal topography. When benchmarking different waterworks, it is important to understand that some of these conditions are case-specific. Waterworks cannot change the external factors but they must analyse them in order for them to operate optimally. Internal factors that waterworks managers and municipal owners can influence include the selection of a suitable ownership and governance model, the roles of different decision makers, the competence of board members, asset management practices, proper maintenance of infrastructure, and operational and financial transparency. This study emphasises that municipal owners should concentrate on ownership policy and focus on their role as owners, not as operational managers. The selection of waterworks board members should prioritise management and engineering expertise. Legislators could help improve the efficiency of waterworks by promoting transparency and requiring uniform reporting practices. Making key information publicly available would enable benchmarking and planning of development activities. Waterworks managers should make long-term investment plans and systematically manage their assets. / Tiivistelmä Julkisen palvelutuotannon tehokkuus on puhuttanut tutkijoita ympäri maailmaa jo vuosikymmenien ajan. Julkisen ja yksityisen palveluntuotannon eroista on keskusteltu monella sektorilla, niin myös vesi- ja jätevesihuoltopalveluissa. Vesihuollon kiristyvät laatu- ja ympäristövaatimukset, vanheneva infrastruktuuri ja nopeasti kasvava korjausvelka yhdessä tiukkenevien tehokkuusvaatimusten kanssa asettavat monet vesihuoltolaitokset ahtaalle. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena on löytää toimenpide-ehdotuksia, joiden avulla vesihuollon suoristuskykyä voidaan parantaa kuitenkaan vaarantamatta palvelun laatua. Tavoitteena on löytää sekä sisäisiä että ulkoisia tekijöitä, jotka vaikuttavat vesihuollon suorituskykyyn ja joita muuttamalla vesihuollon tehokkuutta voidaan parantaa. Tämän väitöskirjan lähestymistapa on tapaustutkimus ja siinä hyödynnetään useita erilaisia tietolähteitä, jotta pystytään luomaan monipuolinen kuvaus tutkimuskohteesta. Analyysin perustana käytettiin erilaisia tietolähteitä kuten haastatteluja, kyselylomaketta sekä julkisesti saatavissa olevia taloudellisia tietoja. Tutkimustulosten mukaan vesihuoltolaitoksen suorituskykyyn vaikuttavia ulkoisia tekijöitä ovat muun muassa lainsäädäntö, ympäristölliset seikat, kunnan topografia sekä asukastiheys. Vesihuoltolaitokset eivät voi suoraan vaikuttaa ulkoisiin tekijöihin, mutta niiden tunnistaminen ja vaikutusten analysointi on tärkeää, jotta annetuissa puitteissa voidaan toimia optimaalisesti. Sisäiset tekijät, joihin vesihuoltolaitoksen johto ja kuntaomistaja voivat vaikuttaa, ovat sopivan omistus- ja hallintomallin valinta, eri toimijoiden väliset roolit, hallituksen jäsenten pätevyys, omaisuuden hallinta sekä operationaalinen ja taloudellinen läpinäkyvyys. Tutkimustulosten mukaan vesihuoltolaitoksen kuntaomistajan tulisi keskittyä omistajapolitiikkaan ja rooliinsa omistajana eikä operatiivisena johtajana. Vesihuoltolaitoksen johtokunnan ja hallituksen jäseniä valittaessa tulisi etusijalle asettaa liikkeenjohdollinen ja tekninen osaaminen. Avoimuuden edistäminen ja yhtenäisten raportointikäytäntöjen edellyttäminen ovat lainsäätäjän mahdollisia työkaluja vesihuoltolaitoksen tehokkuuden edistämiseen. Vesihuoltolaitoksen johdon tulisi tehdä pitkän aikavälin investointisuunnitelmia sekä systemaattisesti hallita vesihuoltolaitoksen omaisuutta.

Vid byggnation av betongväggar på vatten- och reningsverk används dom tvåmetoderna platsgjutna och prefabricerade väggar. Metoderna ger liknande resultatmen skiljer sig avsevärt i genomförande. Vi har därför valt att studera ämnet och draslutsatser om vilken metod som är att föredra.För att studera ämnet valde vi Skebäcks Reningsverk i Örebro som studieobjekt därdom båda metoderna att uppföra nya mellanväggar i betong har använts i sambandmed ombyggnation av befintliga bassänger.Vi har valt att studera kostnader och arbetsmiljöfrågor kring dom två olikabyggmetoderna.Som underlag för kostnadsberäkningen har vi använt Wikells Sektionsdata samtprisuppgifter från leverantörer. För att studera arbetsmiljön har intervjuer genomförtsmed två yrkesverksamma betongarbetare. Intervjuerna gav sedan underlag för enenkät som skickades ut till yrkesverksamma betongarbetare.Vår studie visar att prefabricerade väggar beräknas ge en lägre byggkostnad änmotsvarande platsgjuten vägg vid ett reningsverk. Studien visar även attbetongarbetare föredrar prefabricerade lösningar ur arbetsmiljösynpunkt. Fysisktpåfrestande moment undviks och tiden som spenderas på arbetsplatsen minskar vidprefabricerade betongelement. / When building concrete walls at water and wastewater treatment plants , the twomethods are cast-in-place and prefabricated walls. The methods give similar resultsbut differ considerably in implementation. We have therefore chosen to study thesubject and draw conclusions about which method is preferable.To study the subject, we chose Skebäcks wastewater treatment plant in Örebro as astudy object where both methods of constructing newpartitions in concrete havebeen used in connection with the reconstruction of existing basins.We have chosen to study costs and work environment issues around the twodifferent construction methods. As a basis for the cost calculation, we have usedWikell's Sektion Data and price information from suppliers. To study the workenvironment, interviews were conducted with two professional concrete workers. Theinterviews then provided the basis for a questionnaire that was given to professionalconcrete workers.Our study shows that prefabricated walls provide a lower construction cost than thecorresponding cast-in-place wall at wastewater treatment plant . The study showsthat concrete workers prefer prefabricated solutions from a work environment pointof view. Physically stressful moments are avoided and the time spent in theworkplace is reduced when building with prefabricated concrete walls.

Syftet med projektet är att undersöka effekten av att leda över vattenverksslam från Norrvattens vattenverk, Görvälnverket, till Käppalaverkets reningsverk som ett steg i en mer hållbar slamhantering. Detta slamhanterings alternativ jämförs med en framtida lokal slamhantering vid Görvälnverket. Studien undersöker möjligheten att leda vattenverksslam över till Käppalaverket utifrån fyra huvudaspekter, vattenrening, drift, kostnad och miljöpåverkan. En litteraturstudie genomfördes med syfte att utvärdera hur vattenverksslammet kan påverka reningsprocesserna vid Käppalaverket. En Livscykelanalys genomfördes med syfte att utvärdera miljöpåverkan av att leda över vattenverksslam till Käppalaverket. Genomförbarheten utvärderades med hjälp av en multikriterieanalys, där tekniska, miljömässiga och ekonomiska aspekter utvärderades.  Resultat från studien visade att den framtida lokala slamhanteringen är mer fördelaktig från ett tekniskt och ekonomiskt perspektiv, än överledning av vattenverksslammet till Käppalaverket. En nackdel med överledning av vattenverksslam till Käppalaverket är att vattenverksslammet sannolikt kommer påverka avvattningen av avloppsslammet, vilket resulterar i en högre polymerförbrukning och en ökad hydraulisk belastning på centrifuger och rötkammare. Överledningen av vattenverksslam antas däremot inte ha en negativ påverka på kvaliteten av reningen vid Käppalaverket. Att leda vattenverksslam över till Käppalaverket ger en lägre miljöpåverkan med avseende på kemikalieutsläpp till vattenmiljön men en högre miljöpåverkan med avseende på transporter och energiförbrukning.  Överledning av vattenverksslam till Käppalaverket bedöms som genomförbart, men denna studie visar att den framtida lokala slamhanteringen på Görvälnverket är ett mer fördelaktigt alternativ. Om överledning av vattenverksslam till Käppalaverket fortsatt är ett aktuellt alternativ rekommenderas det att en mer djupgående studie utförs, där vattenverksslammet tillsätts till Käppalaverket för att utvärdera dess påverkan. / The aim with this project is to investigate the impact of leading the produced waterworks sludge (WWS) from Norrvattens drinking water treatment plant (DWTP), Görvälnverket, over to Käppalaverkets wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) as a step in a more sustainable sludge management. This alternative is compared to a future sludge management at Görvälnverket. The study, investigating the feasibility of leading the WWS over to Käppalaverket, is based on four main aspects, water treatment, operation, cost, and environmental impact. A literature study was performed to evaluate the effect of WWS on Käppalaverket. A life cycle assessment (LCA) analysis was performed to evaluate the environmental impact of leading the WWS over to Käppalaverket. The feasibility was evaluated using a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA), where technical, environmental, and economic aspects were considered. The study shows that the future sludge management is more favourable than leading the WWS over to Käppalaverket from a technical and economic aspect. The main drawback with leading the WWS over to Käppalaverket is that the WWS will likely impact the dewatering of the sewage sludge, resulting in a higher polymer consumption and an increased hydraulic load on centrifuges and digesters. However, the addition of WWS at Käppalaverket is not assumed to negatively impact the quality of the treatment at Käppalaverket. Leading the WWS over to Käppalaverket results in a lower environmental impact regarding chemical emissions but results in a higher environmental impact regarding transportation and energy consumption. Leading the WWS over to Käppalaverket was found to be feasible, although the future sludge management at Görvälnverket was found to be more favourably in this study. A more in depth study on the feasibility of leading the WWS over to Käppalaverkets is required to fully assess this aspect. A trial where the WWS is added to Käppalaverket is recommended to further evaluate the impact of the WWS.

"Undercurrents of Urban Modernism: Water, Architecture, and Landscape in California and the American West" conducts an art-historical analysis of historic waterworks buildings in order to examine cultural values pertinent to aesthetiteics in relationships between water, architecture and landscape in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Visual study of architectural style, ornamental iconography, and landscape features reveals cultural values related to water, water systems, landscape/land use, and urban development. Part 1 introduces a historiography of ideas of "West" and "landscape" to provide a context for defining ways in which water and landscape were conceived in the United States during turn-of-the-century urban development in the American West. Part 2 provides a historical context for California waterworks with a discussion of major U.S. city waterworks from 1799 to 1893 in Philadelphia, Louisville, New York, and New Orleans. Primary architectural styles discussed are Greek Revival, Egyptian Revival, and Roman Revival. Part 3 presents the dissertation's central object of study: waterworks and hydropower architecture for the greater San Francisco Bay Area between 1860 and 1939. From substations to dams, architects who designed waterworks structures drew from historical revival, academic eclecticism, and structural design traditions. The specific waterworks structures anchoring inquiry in this chapter are two round, peripteral, neoclassical water temples built for San Francisco's water supply to mark key underground aqueduct features. I analyze these two temples--the Sunol Water Temple from 1910 and the Pulgas Water Temple from 1939--in formal terms as well as from within broader urban and historical contexts. Part 4 culminates the dissertation with a case study of two dams whose aesthetic features were obscured by unneeded buttresssing when concerns for dam safety arose after a Southern California dam failure had killed several hundred people in 1928. I inquire into a cultural ambivalence stemming that seems to stem from historical conflicts determining the relative aesthetics of "use" and "beauty" in utilitarian waterworks structures. The overall questions in this dissertation inquire into ways in which aesthetic aspects of architectural design of waterworks structures expressed cultural values regarding water, architecture, and landscape in California between 1860 and 1939. / text

The need for access to clean, healthy water is a subject that surrounds the world. The United States is fortunate to have the latest technology for access to water and treatment of water; however, one subject that hits at the heart of the nation is water security. A breach in the water systems in the U.S. would cause direct public harm because the population relies on water to sustain life. Protecting potable water systems is necessary because of natural disasters, but it has gained importance since the September 11, 2001 attacks on the U.S. Threats on the water systems from intentional attacks cause high risk in affecting public health. Water Security is an area of defense that has recently been evolving and research in this subject has increased. Detection methods are of high importance in protecting from contamination. This thesis determines the most detrimental contaminants; discusses the importance of detection methods, sensor networks, and Contamination Warning Systems (CWS); provides prevention and detection devices currently available; and explains in depth the threats, prevention, detection, response, and rehabilitation associated with water contamination events. NOTE: Both archival copies of the manuscript were missing pages 208-210.