<p>High-resolution bio-logging tools were used to examine the fine-scale foraging behaviors of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the coastal waters of the Western Antarctic Peninsula during the austral autumn of 2009 and 2010. Discrete feeding events (i.e., lunges) were inferred from the biologging records of thirteen whales, including a mother and her calf. In general, humpback whales exhibited efficient foraging behaviors that allowed them to maximize energetic gains and minimize energetic costs as predicted by optimal foraging theory. They fed at a continuous and high rate in the upper portion of the water column (< 100 m) from approximately dusk to dawn when their prey (Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba) were most vulnerable and less costly to acquire (i.e., near the surface). When forced to dive to greater depths, they adjusted their behaviors (e.g., descent and ascent rates) so that they could maximize their foraging durations and increase their lunging rates. In addition, humpbacks appeared to accept short term (i.e., dive by dive) costs associated with depleted oxygen stores in favor of maximizing long term (i.e., daily) energetic gains. Such efficient behaviors are particularly beneficial for mother-calf pairs who have additional energetic costs associated with foraging, such as lactation (mother), growth (calf), and maintaining proximity. In addition, because the physiology of humpback whales is poorly understood yet critically important for predicting their behaviors in response to fluctuations in their environmental conditions, foraging behaviors inferred from the bio-logging records were used to estimate their metabolic rates, oxygen storage capacities, and oxygen replenishment rates under the framework of optimal foraging theory. This research suggests that the current techniques used to estimate humpback whale oxygen stores is appropriate but that the estimation of metabolic rates of humpbacks while foraging and while traveling need to be addressed further. This work aims to increase the current understanding of humpback whale foraging behaviors along the Western Antarctic Peninsula so that appropriate measures can be taken to aid in their recovery and in the sustainability of the Antarctic marine ecosystem.</p> / Dissertation

In this study, I present a new approach to prey quantification in the context of the predator-prey relationship between an apex marine predator, the gray whale, (Eschrichtius robustus) and one of its primary prey, mysids (Family Mysidae) in a tertiary foraging area, in Clayoquot Sound, on the west coast of Vancouver, Island, British Columbia. With the use of a remote acoustical sounder, I first quantify mysid patches in the presence of foraging gray whales. Second, I address the biomass in those patches using a new approach to quantification. By creating an estimate of total biomass of mysids in the study area concurrently with the presence of gray whales, I demonstrate the effect that the foraging whales have on their prey. Tracking the changes of the number of whales and the number of patches, including the overall biomass of the patches provides evidence for this relationship. As the number of gray whales in the study area increases steadily from May to July, 2004, the number of mysid patches and biomass decrease during the same period. The number of foraging whales located in the study area ranged from only five in May to thirty-one on July 18th, in a region covering only 25 km of the southwest coast of Flores Island. After this period of foraging, the whales deserted the study area completely, and only one whale was seen during the month of August. The mysid population regroups slightly after the pressure of foraging whales is released, the number of patches and biomass increase a small amount, exhibiting the expected behavioral response of the prey to re-aggregate into tight swarms. The acoustic method for prey quantification is described in detail as this is a first application of this technology to the mysid-gray whale relationship. In this approach, l demonstrate that the Distorted Wave Borne Approximation model (DWBA) is useful to estimate mysid populations. This study provides a key piece in the progression of eight years of ongoing research on the foraging ecology of gray whales in Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia.

Male song and other acoustic signals are often sexually selected traits that are common in many taxa, such as birds, anurans and insects. Song often serves a dual function in female attraction and male-male competition and song characteristics such as duration, rate, repertoire size and amplitude are important for both functions and to be correlated with male reproductive success. Male humpback whales are well known for singing a complex and highly stereotyped song during the breeding season and while the song appears important in the social interactions of humpback whales during the breeding season, the function of song is still unclear. Current debate surrounds whether song is primarily directed towards females as an elaborate acoustic display or towards other males to facilitate male social ordering. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the nature of interactions between singers and conspecifics and document the context in which singing occurs. This was achieved by: (1) investigating the movement patterns and interactions between singing and non-singing whales and (2) examining differences in the song structure and source levels of song within a social context. To investigate song function, simultaneous observations of the positions and movements of singing and non-singing whales were obtained in real time during their southward migration off the east coast of Australia in September and October of 2002 - 2004. Data on the interactions of whales were collected by acoustic tracking using a hydrophone array, visual tracking using land-based hilltop observations and observations collected from a small boat. Of a total 114 singers, 48 did not associate with other whales whereas 66 were involved in 63 associations. Singers were significantly more likely to join groups containing a female and calf than any other group type and the only groups with which singers started to sing after joining were unescorted mother-calf pairs. Singers also associated for longer and sang for a significantly greater proportion of time in the presence of a female-calf pair than any other group type. Previous studies demonstrate that associating with females with a calf can be a reproductively successful strategy for males. In contrast, whales that joined singers were usually lone males, these associations were brief and singers typically stopped singing in the presence of other males. These findings provide the highest reported incidence in humpback whales of males singing when escorting females and support an intersexual function of song in humpback whales. A suggested explanation for observations of males joining singers is that these males are prospecting for females rather than engaging in male social ordering and that singing may incur the cost of attracting competing males. To investigate the importance of surface active behaviours in interactions involving singers and whether singers utilize the acoustic cues from these behaviours to locate other groups, the frequency and type of surface active behaviours were quantified in singing and non-singing groups. Compared to singers that were alone and did not interact with other whales, surrounding groups were significantly closer to a singer (on average 2.8 km distance) when singers joined other groups, and singers joined other groups that were surface active in 54 % of cases. While source levels of different surface active behaviours vary and certain behaviours might be better suited for inter-group communication, it is unlikely that singers rely primarily on acoustic cues from surface active behaviours to locate other groups. Surface activity was not more common in groups just prior to singers joining them, and while not significantly so, surface activity increased when singers affiliated with other groups suggesting an importance in intra-group dynamics. Whereas lone singers were the least surface active, groups containing a calf were found to exhibit a significantly higher rate of surface activity than groups without a calf, for which the calf displayed the majority of behaviours. Considering singers predominantly joined mother-calf pairs, it could be speculated that a high rate of surface activity by a calf might inadvertently attract singers and other surrounding males to these groups and could increase the probability of singers and other males locating mother-calf groups. To further explore a context of singing, the structure and amplitude of songs were investigated over two years for singers in two distinct social contexts; lone singers and singing escorts. A total of 274 songs from 27 singers in 2003 and 2004 were analysed, with a subset of data used for source level comparisons. Lone singers consistently sang longer songs compared to singing escorts due to a greater repetition of phrases most noticeably within one theme (theme C), the theme in which all singers sang the most common song unit (the moan) at higher amplitude compared to the other three themes in which it occurred. These findings suggest that lone singers might increase the repetition of phrases sung at higher amplitude to maximise the broadcast of their song and maximise their probability of detection. In contrast, singing escorts sang shorter songs due to a reduced repetition of phrases in most themes, particularly the theme containing the loudest song units (theme C). Consequently, singing escorts sang the song more quickly, resulting in a higher song rate compared to lone singers. Comparisons of the average broadband source levels of nine song units in the 2004 song showed significant variation among the nine different units and among the 22 individual singers for each song unit. Source levels of one of the nine song units also varied significantly between lone singers and singing escorts. Singing escorts produced higher source levels than lone singers for the ‘cry’ which showed a difference of 4 dB higher than lone singers. Lone singers typically produced higher source levels for the ‘moans’, which were low frequency sounds that propagate well, although this was not significant. We suggest that amplitude of the song might be important in female assessment of singers and the particular song units that singing escorts sing more loudly are the basis for this assessment. These findings further support an inter-sexual function of song in humpback whales. This study has described in detail the contexts in which males are observed to sing and has been able to provide new interpretations on the social interactions of singers. The results within this thesis provide the highest reported occurrence in humpback whales of males singing in the presence of females and strongly suggest that song has an inter-sexual function. Further work is needed that investigates song structure within a social context and the potential for song functioning as a long distance advertisement display and/ or courtship display.

Thesis (M.P.A.)--Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1993. / Vita. Abstract. Includes bibliographical references. Also available via the Internet.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 1998. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [235]-251).

Submitted by Tatiana Lima (tatianasl@ufba.br) on 2016-03-22T19:19:25Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Brito, Alex Silva de.pdf: 3346563 bytes, checksum: 4ee3e58c375a0e2808f23db3f05b7dab (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Tatiana Lima (tatianasl@ufba.br) on 2016-04-19T18:22:07Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Brito, Alex Silva de.pdf: 3346563 bytes, checksum: 4ee3e58c375a0e2808f23db3f05b7dab (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-19T18:22:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Brito, Alex Silva de.pdf: 3346563 bytes, checksum: 4ee3e58c375a0e2808f23db3f05b7dab (MD5) / Atualmente um dos maiores desafios que enfrentam os destinos turísticos, as empresas e as organizações neles inseridos, está relacionado com o tema governança em territórios turísticos, sua sistematização e processo de intervenção nos espaços públicos (territórios turísticos). Com a contribuição do mesmo para o processo de sustentabilidade do destino e dos negócios visando à melhoria na qualidade de vida das pessoas que vivem e trabalham nas cidades inseridas no destino. Para isso, é necessário respeitar o ambiente, proporcionar equidade social, e promover o desenvolvimento econômico e social e pensar no processo de cooperação social e empresarial. Face aos atuais hábitos culturais da sociedade, considera-se de extrema importância que exista um processo metodológico de intervenção na renovação das organizações públicas e privadas, tendo em vista o fortalecimento de uma instância de governança sustentável. Diante disso, escolheuse como tema deste trabalho “Governança como fator de competitividade e de desenvolvimento do destino turístico Costa das Baleias (BA): Uma análise comparativa com Bento Gonçalves (RS)”. O objetivo geral do estudo foi identificar nas práticas de governança do município de Bento Gonçalves-RS, ações que possibilitem desenvolver uma estratégia tecnológica de governança que fortaleça a gestão dos destinos turísticos da Costa das Baleias-BA. Para tanto, foi necessário: conceituar e explicar as terminações “governança” e “gestão”; contextualizar a governança no setor turístico; identificar as práticas de governança no turismo aplicadas no município de Bento Gonçalves e os desafios enfrentados para sua implantação; identificar os desafios enfrentados e as práticas de governança no turismo aplicadas na Costa das Baleias; e, verificar os pontos que necessitam de fortalecimento no destino Costa das Baleias. O trabalho foi desenvolvido por meio de um estudo exploratório e descritivo, baseado na pesquisa bibliográfica, documental e de campo. Utilizou-se também a observação participante. No final da pesquisa foi possível concluir que Bento Gonçalves é efetivamente uma zona turística consolidada do Destino Serra Gaúcha, com uma liderança participativa e cooperativa, com uma Instância de Governança consolidada, baseada em alicerces da iniciativa privada, tendo total apoio do setor público. No que tange à Costa das Baleias, tem-se uma zona turística do Destino Bahia em franco crescimento, tendo que se adotar algumas medidas quanto ao modelo da Câmara de Turismo, no entanto, percebe-se que há um terreno fértil para o desenvolvimento da Instância. Currently one of the biggest challenges facing tourist destinations, businesses and organizations that they carry, is related to the theme of governance in tourist areas, and its systematic process of intervention in public spaces (tourist areas). With its contribution to the process of sustainability of the destination and the business aimed at improving the quality of people life living and working in inserted in the destination cities. For this, it is necessary to respect the environment, provide social equity, and promote economic and social development and thinking in social and business cooperation process. Considering the current cultural habits of society, it is counted of utmost importance that there is a methodological process of intervention in the renewal of public and private organizations in order to strengthen an instance of sustainable governance. Therefore, we chose as the theme of this paper "Governance as a competitiveness and development factor of the tourist destination Whale Coast (BA): A comparative analysis with Bento Gonçalves (RS)". The overall objective of the study was to identify the governance practices of the city of Bento Gonçalves (RS), actions that enable develop a technology strategy of governance that strengthens the management of tourist destinations in Costa Whale (BA). Therefore, it was necessary to: conceptualize and explain the terms "governance" and "management"; contextualize governance in the tourism sector; identify governance practices applied in tourism in the city of Bento Gonçalves and challenges to its implementation; identify challenges and governance practices applied in tourism in Whale Coast; and check points that need strengthening in the destination Whale Coast. The work was developed through an exploratory and descriptive study, based on literature, documentary and field research. We also used participant observation. At the end of the research it was concluded that Bento Gonçalves is effectively an established tourist area of Fate Serra Gaúcha, with a participatory and cooperative leadership, with an consolidated Instance of Governance, based on foundations in the private sector, with full support from the public sector. Regarding the Whale Coast, has become a booming tourist zone of the Bahia Destination, having to adopt some measures regarding the model of the Chamber of Tourism, however, one realizes that there is a fertile ground for the development of instance.

abstract: Whale watching has been hailed by environmental non-governmental organizations like Greenpeace and the International Fund for Animal Welfare as a responsible form of tourism that has the potential to enhance conservation outcomes for cetaceans, while also supporting the economic development of coastal communities. Tourism research suggests that while it is possible for whale watching to provide these benefits, it may also have considerable costs to members of host communities and cetaceans. My dissertation sought to gather data on the economic, ecological, and social impacts of whale watching in the Caribbean in order to evaluate the industry's performance in the region. My project thus took the form of three sub-projects. The first used an ordinary least squares analysis to examine the relationship between Caribbean country characteristics and whale watching expenditures. This analysis showed that a country's level of development changes the strength of correlations, that mass tourism development is negatively associated with whale watching profits, and that cetacean biodiversity and whale watching regulations designed to protect cetaceans both had positive relationships with the whale watching industry. In the second sub-project, I developed an index of Caribbean cetacean vulnerability to the negative impacts of whale watching with a traditional literature review informed by systematic methods. The index illustrated that both target and non-target species had vulnerabilities, and that regulations addressing these issues in the Caribbean were lacking overall. Considerable gaps in data were also identified. Finally, I used qualitative interviews in Dominica and the Dominican Republic to gather information on resident perceptions of whale watching. This analysis revealed overall positive perceptions of the industry in both countries, but also uncovered considerable levels of social conflict surrounding whale watching. Taken together, the results of my study suggest that better regulatory structures, investment in the local community, and efforts to maximize cooperation are needed in order for the Caribbean whale watch industry to better serve local communities, while mitigating its impacts on cetaceans. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Environmental Social Science 2017

abstract: Many wildlife species that are essential to human livelihoods are targeted with the aim of extracting short-term benefits. Overexploitation, resulting from failed common-pool resource governance, has endangered the sustainability of large animal species, in particular. Rights-based approaches to wildlife conservation offer a possible path forward. In a wildlife market, property rights, or shares of an animal population, are allocated to resource users with interests in either harvest or preservation. Here, I apply the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework (Ostrom, 2009) to identify the conditions under which the ecological, social, and economic outcomes of a conservation market are improved compared to the status quo. I first consider three case studies (Bighorn sheep, white rhino, and Atlantic Bluefin tuna) all of which employ different market mechanisms. Based on the SES framework and these case studies, I then evaluate whether markets are a feasible management option for other socially and ecologically significant species, such as whales (and similar highly migratory species), and whether market instruments are capable of accommodating non-consumptive environmental values in natural resource decision making. My results suggest that spatial and temporal distribution, ethical and cultural relevance, and institutional histories compatible with commodification of wildlife are key SES subsystem variables. Successful conservation markets for cross-boundary marine species, such as whales, sea turtles, and sharks, will require intergovernmental agreements. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Biology 2014

A fim de caracterizar o comportamento de filhotes de baleia jubarte, este estudo foi conduzido ao redor do Arquipélago dos Abrolhos, um importante sítio de nascimento e cria da espécie no Brasil. Foram investigados aspectos do desenvolvimento comportamental dos filhotes, diferenças comportamentais entre filhotes nascidos em diferentes temporadas reprodutivas e, também, a influência da presença de um escorte no comportamento dos filhotes. Os dados foram coletados entre os anos de 1998 a 2004, entre os meses de julho a novembro, a partir de um ponto fixo de observação no topo da Ilha de Santa Bárbara, no Arquipélago dos Abrolhos. O método utilizado foi o de amostragem de animal focal, com registro de todos os eventos e estados comportamentais realizados pelos filhotes, com o auxilio de um teodolito. 207 observações focais foram analisadas, totalizando 313,65 horas de amostragem. Os filhotes apresentaram um repertório comportamental bastante diverso e com uma grande variação quanto à taxa de ocorrência. Os eventos mais freqüentes foram ARQUEAMENTO DO PEDÚNCULO, SALTO, EXPOSIÇÃO DE UM LOBO DA CAUDAL e BATIDA DE CAUDAL; os poucos freqüentes ou raros foram SLASH DE CAUDAL, BARRIGA PARA CIMA, ACENANDO e ALONGAMENTO DO PEDÚNCULO. Entre os estados comportamentais, os filhotes permaneceram a maior parte do tempo em NATAÇÃO, sendo observado em média 42,21% do tempo. MILLING foi o segundo estado mais freqüente (média: 29,86%), seguido de REPOUSO (média: 20,91%) e ATIVO (média: 7,02%). A alta freqüência de ocorrência de alguns eventos e o tempo gasto em NATAÇÃO sugerem a importância desses comportamentos no desenvolvimento da coordenação e aptidão motora, fortalecimento da musculatura e melhora da resistência nos filhotes. Dessa maneira, os filhotes desenvolvem habilidades necessárias para interações sociais futuras e reprodução e, também, para necessidades do momento, como o desenvolvimento da relação com a mãe, amamentação e preparação para a migração. A análise do comportamento dos filhotes nas três fases da temporada reprodutiva mostrou que os filhotes aumentaram a taxa de ocorrência dos eventos ARQUEAMENTO DO PEDÚNCULO, EXPOSIÇÃO DE CABEÇA, BATIDA DE CABEÇA, EXPOSIÇÃO DE UM LOBO DA CAUDAL e EXPOSIÇÃO DE PEITORAL. Entretanto, não foi possível identificar estágios de desenvolvimento específicos. Dez dos 18 eventos comportamentais apresentaram diferenças na taxa de ocorrência entre filhotes de temporadas distintas, assim como a proporção do tempo gasto em REPOUSO pelos filhotes foi diferente. Apesar destas diferenças observadas entre alguns anos, não foi identificado um padrão temporal. Na presença de um escorte o comportamento dos filhotes mudou: a taxa de ocorrência de ARQUEAMENTO DO PEDÚNCULO, EXPOSIÇÃO DE CABEÇA e COLO foi significativamente menor. Adicionalmente, os filhotes permaneceram mais tempo em NATAÇÃO e menos tempo em REPOUSO do que quando estavam acompanhados apenas de suas mães. Alguns trabalhos sugerem que a presença de um escorte pode proporcionar proteção ao filhote, porém, diante das alterações comportamentais observadas, e do aumento da velocidade média de natação, a presença do escorte parece não trazer benefícios, pelo contrário, parece ter um efeito negativo para o filhote, ao menos em termos energéticos. / To characterize the behavior of humpback whales calves, a study was conduct around Abrolhos Archipelago, an important nursing area for the species in Brazil. It was investigated aspects of the behavioral development of calves, behavioral differences between calves of different breeding seasons and also the effects of the presence of one escort in the behavior of calves. The data were collected from 1998 to 2004, through the months of July to November, from a land-base station on the top of Santa Barbara Island at the Abrolhos Archipelago. The chosen method was animal focal sampling, with record of all behavioral events and state occurrences, using a theodolite. A total of 207 focal observations were analyzed, comprising 313.65 hours of sampling. Humpback whales calves exhibit a very diverse behavioral repertoire, with a strong variation in the occurrence rate. More frequent events were PEDUNCLE ARCH, BREACH, EXPOSITION OF HALF OF THE FLUKE and TAIL SLAP; and the less frequent were TAIL SLASH, BELLY-UP, TAIL WAVE and PEDUNCLE ELONGATION. Among the behavioral states, calves remained more time SWIMMING (mean: 42.21%). MILLING was the second most frequent state (mean: 29.86%), followed by RESTING (mean: 20.91%) and ACTIVE was the least frequent (mean: 7.02%). The high frequency of occurrence of some behavioral events as well as the high proportion of time SWIMMING suggest that these behaviors are important to the development of coordination and motor ability and also to muscle strengthening. In this way, the calves can develop abilities needed to future social interactions and reproduction, but also to current needs, as in the development of the relationship with its mother, for nursing and for preparing to migration. There was a significant effect of phase of the season on rate of occurrence of PEDUNCLE ARCH, HEAD EXPOSITION, HEAD SLAP, EXPOSITION OF HALF OF THE FLUKE and PECTORAL EXPOSITION. However it was not possible to identify a specific development stage. Ten of 18 behavioral events showed variation in the rate of occurrence along the seven breeding seasons studied, also the proportion of time RESTING state showed a significant difference among seasons. Despite the observed differences among some years, they did not show any pattern. In the presence of one escort the behavior of calves changed. The rate of occurrence of PEDUNCLE ARCH, HEAD EXPOSITION and LAP was significant lower. Besides, calves remained more time SWIMMING and less time RESTING than when calves were only accompanied with their mothers. Studies suggest distinct functions to escorts, including provide protection to calves. However in face of the behavioral changes and increase in speed of swimming, the presence of one escort seems not to be an advantage, on the contrary seems to have a negative effect to the calf, at least in the energetic demand.

Developing appropriate management plans for species at risk requires information about their population structure and abundance. For most cetacean populations, few reliable population estimates are available and even fewer distributions have been mapped. Accurate abundance estimates can be determined from capture-recapture data if assumptions are met, however this can be difficult when the animal in question demonstrates both strong site fidelity and large-scale migrations, and different models can result in dramatically different results. I explored these issues by examining a 15-year dataset (1992-2006) of photo-identifications of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in British Columbia (BC), Canada. I used multiple capture-recapture models to compare how the definition of population and variation in effort affected estimates of population size, and I explored means to correct for these biases. I also considered stock structure by examining individual breeding ground destinations, movement, and localized site-fidelity within BC. Across the six models considered, the BC humpback whale abundance in 2006 ranged between 1,428 and 3,856 individuals. The Lincoln-Petersen estimate (1,428-1,892) likely best described the number of humpback whales in BC during summer 2006. The effort-standardized Jolly-Seber model (1,970-2,331) is more representative of the larger population of humpback whales that uses or passes through BC over multiple years. Ultimately, selecting the best estimation model requires defining the ‘population’ of interest and accounting for spatial and temporal distribution of sampling effort. British Columbia provides feeding habitat and a potential migratory corridor for whales that breed in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. Forty-four percent of the 1,986 humpback whales considered were sighted in BC in more than one year. Identifications were highest from May to October, with a peak in September, but humpback whales were present in BC in all months of the year. Whales showed strong site fidelity with a median re-sighting distance of 75 km between years, and a maximum re-sighting distance that ranged from 0.41 km to 842 km. Matching rate within BC decreased as a function of north-south distance, though no clear north-south boundary could be established. Stock structure of humpback whales in British Columbia is complex and should be considered in managing this population. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate