Neste trabalho é apresentado estudo sobre a racionalização da operação numa empresa de ônibus que realiza transporte fretado de funcionérios de empresas e de escolas. O estudo consistiu no levantamento completo e detalhado dos serviços prestados pela empresa, na análise do sistema de operação empregado visando identificar possíveis estratégias para racionalização da operação sem prejuízo da qualidade, no desenvolvimento dos planos para implementação desses planos. Na primeira parte do trabalho é apresentada a fundamentação teórica do estudo, com discussão do problema da racionalização no transporte de pessoas e produtos e do conceito de qualidade e de eficiência no transporte por ônibus fretados. Também é reproduzida a legislação trabalhista em vigor (Consolidação das Leis Trabalhistas - CLT e Acordo Coletivo de Trabalho da Categoria), que constitui o arcabouço legal condicionador do processo de otimização da mão de obra (motoristas). Os principais resultados do estudo de caso realizado são os seguintes: as características dos serviços prestados pela empresa afastam a possibilidade de redução da frota utilizada e da quilometragem percorrida; a possibilidade de racionalização se limita a um único canal - um melhor aproveitamento da mão de obra (motoristas), por meio da redução das horas ociosas remuneradas sem trabalho produtivo e das horas extras que são pagas com valores maiores que os das horas de trabalho normais; e os planos de racionalização da mão de obra propostos levam a benefícios econômicos significativos. / A study for the rationalization of chartered bus operation serving blue-collar workers and school children is presented in this work. The research started with a comprehensive survey of the services supplied by the company. It was followed by an analysis of the existing operation system in order to identify rationalization strategies that would not worsen the service quality. The development of implementation plans for the selected strategies were the next step of the study along with the evaluation ofthe economic benefits resulting from those plans. A theoretical framework is presented in the first part of the text, in which the problems associated with the rationalization of people and goods transportation is discussed. The concepts of effectiveness and efficacy of chartered bus transport are also treated in the same section. Next, the labor legislation in force (Consolidation of the Labor Laws - C.L.T. and Collective Agreement of the Work of the Category) is reproduced and commented. This law constitutes the legal framework that regulates the workforce optimization, including drivers. Based on the case studied, the main conclusions are: it is difficult to reduce the fleet and the distance traveled by the company due the characteristics of the services supplied - the only way to reduce costs is to make a better use of the workforce (drivers) forcing a reduction of idle and overtime paid hours, which usually have greater values than the normal working hours. Finally, the study shows that the proposed plans for the rationalization of the workforce produce significant economic benefits.

Neste trabalho é apresentado estudo sobre a racionalização da operação numa empresa de ônibus que realiza transporte fretado de funcionérios de empresas e de escolas. O estudo consistiu no levantamento completo e detalhado dos serviços prestados pela empresa, na análise do sistema de operação empregado visando identificar possíveis estratégias para racionalização da operação sem prejuízo da qualidade, no desenvolvimento dos planos para implementação desses planos. Na primeira parte do trabalho é apresentada a fundamentação teórica do estudo, com discussão do problema da racionalização no transporte de pessoas e produtos e do conceito de qualidade e de eficiência no transporte por ônibus fretados. Também é reproduzida a legislação trabalhista em vigor (Consolidação das Leis Trabalhistas - CLT e Acordo Coletivo de Trabalho da Categoria), que constitui o arcabouço legal condicionador do processo de otimização da mão de obra (motoristas). Os principais resultados do estudo de caso realizado são os seguintes: as características dos serviços prestados pela empresa afastam a possibilidade de redução da frota utilizada e da quilometragem percorrida; a possibilidade de racionalização se limita a um único canal - um melhor aproveitamento da mão de obra (motoristas), por meio da redução das horas ociosas remuneradas sem trabalho produtivo e das horas extras que são pagas com valores maiores que os das horas de trabalho normais; e os planos de racionalização da mão de obra propostos levam a benefícios econômicos significativos. / A study for the rationalization of chartered bus operation serving blue-collar workers and school children is presented in this work. The research started with a comprehensive survey of the services supplied by the company. It was followed by an analysis of the existing operation system in order to identify rationalization strategies that would not worsen the service quality. The development of implementation plans for the selected strategies were the next step of the study along with the evaluation ofthe economic benefits resulting from those plans. A theoretical framework is presented in the first part of the text, in which the problems associated with the rationalization of people and goods transportation is discussed. The concepts of effectiveness and efficacy of chartered bus transport are also treated in the same section. Next, the labor legislation in force (Consolidation of the Labor Laws - C.L.T. and Collective Agreement of the Work of the Category) is reproduced and commented. This law constitutes the legal framework that regulates the workforce optimization, including drivers. Based on the case studied, the main conclusions are: it is difficult to reduce the fleet and the distance traveled by the company due the characteristics of the services supplied - the only way to reduce costs is to make a better use of the workforce (drivers) forcing a reduction of idle and overtime paid hours, which usually have greater values than the normal working hours. Finally, the study shows that the proposed plans for the rationalization of the workforce produce significant economic benefits.

The object of interest in this essay is the issue of reducing work hours and how that issue was handled in the Trade Union Confederation (LO). In previous research the struggle for shorter work hours has been viewed as a struggle between trade union and employers’ organizations. The previous research has had difficulties in explaining LOs part in this struggle, their actions have not been the expected. LO had not played an active part in the struggle for shorter work hours and the previous research has not been able to given a satisfying explanation for this. In this essay the starting-point is another. The issue of reducing work hours, this essay argues, was a problem for LO. The problem consists of the need for LO to mark against communism, both inside and outside of the organization. But this essay also argues that the issue of reducing work hours is in it self subversive and therefore a problem for the reformist LO. From this staring-point the essay analyses the view of the issue of reducing work hours in LO during the period of 1945-1967. The conclusion in the essay is that LO disarmed the issue of reducing work hours, making it harmless. By shifts in conceptions of needs, the possible and conceptions of time and development the issue of reducing work hours was disarmed. The disarmed issue enabled LO to unite the organization in the delicate matter without the risk of pursuing a subversive issue.

In order to better understand the specific mechanisms that may hinder high educational achievement among Latino students, this study explored the impact of parental working hours on parental involvement and school outcomes across three generations of Mexican-American youth. Results from a longitudinal data set revealed that constrained parental availability, related to increased working hours, had an impact on the amount of parental involvement for third generation students, but not on their academic outcomes. For first-generation students, parental monitoring (a form of parental involvement) was a significant positive predictor for grade 8 and 10 reading scores as well as high school completion among second-generation students. Results from this study suggest that increased parental monitoring may be beneficial for higher academic outcomes for first and second generation students. Future research will need to investigate what types of parental involvement may influence third generation students.

In order to better understand the specific mechanisms that may hinder high educational achievement among Latino students, this study explored the impact of parental working hours on parental involvement and school outcomes across three generations of Mexican-American youth. Results from a longitudinal data set revealed that constrained parental availability, related to increased working hours, had an impact on the amount of parental involvement for third generation students, but not on their academic outcomes. For first-generation students, parental monitoring (a form of parental involvement) was a significant positive predictor for grade 8 and 10 reading scores as well as high school completion among second-generation students. Results from this study suggest that increased parental monitoring may be beneficial for higher academic outcomes for first and second generation students. Future research will need to investigate what types of parental involvement may influence third generation students.

Thesis advisor: Claudia C. Olivetti / Thesis advisor: Theodore T. Papageorgiou / This dissertation consists of a collection of three essays in Labor Economics, all studying the careers of young American workers. The first two essays, Chapter 1 and Chapter 2, analyze the early-career gender wage gap among recent cohorts of highly educated US workers. The third essay, Chapter 3, analyzes long-run changes occurred over the last four decades in the supply of overtime work among American employees. Chapter 1 provides an in-depth analysis of the evolution of the careers of Millennial American college graduates from labor market entry to five to ten years later. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1997) I neatly reconstruct workers' careers from labor market entry and provide a variety of reduced-form evidence showing that gender differences in the wage gains that workers obtain when they change jobs determine a large portion of the early-career gender wage gap and of its expansion over years of experience. I show that these results are robust and hold irrespective of young workers' marital and parental status. In light of the results provided in Chapter 1, in Chapter 2 I study the contribution of the main determinants of wage gains from job changes to the early-career gender wage gap among highly-educated American workers. Specifically, first, I estimate a structural model of hedonic job search to estimate the extent to which men and women differ in terms of search frictions, of preferences for valuable amenities (flexibility and parental leave) and of the wage offers received conditional on the provision of amenities. Second, I use the model estimates to perform a series of counterfactual analyses and quantify the impact of search frictions, preferences and wage offers on the early-career gender wage gap and on its expansion due to job search and job changes. I find that young men and women share similar preferences for amenities. Compared to men, however, women are offered lower wages, and predominantly so in jobs that provide benefits. Since these jobs typically offer higher wages too, the gender pay gap expands as workers climb the job ladder to enter employment relationships that offer better wage-benefits bundles. The higher price that women pay for amenities explains 42% of the early-career growth in the wage gap that the model attributes to job search and job changes. The remaining portion is explained by the lower wages offered to women in jobs that do not provide benefits (25%) and by women's stronger search frictions (33%). In Chapter 3 I study the determinants of long-run trends in overtime work. I document that work hours have been increasing in the United States in the 1980s and 1990s and steadily declining in the 2000s and 2010s, and that these trends were predominantly driven by secular changes in the share of young, salaried employees working long hours (more than 40 hours per week) in relatively high-pay jobs. I then provide a model that explains the evolving long-run trends in overtime as an outcome of underlying changes in labor demand that affected the life-cycle wage gains that employees expect to obtain when supplying overtime work hours. I empirically test and validate the implications of the model, and show that long-run changes in the wage premia for working long hours can explain the rise and fall in overtime work that I document. Finally, I estimate long-run trends in persistent and transitory wage dispersion and show that persistent wage dispersion grew in the 1980s and 1990s and declined later on. To the extent that shocks to wage gains from working long hours result into an increase in the spread of permanent income across employees typically supplying different amounts of work hours, I show that a rise and fall in wage premia for overtime work reconciles the observed reversed-U shaped trend in both overtime work and persistent wage dispersion. These results are suggestive that, after surging in the 1980s and the 1990s, the “fortunes of the youth'” may have been declining later on, due to shifts in labor demand that flattened the life-cycle wage profiles that young, salaried employees can obtain when supplying long work hours. These results can also help reconcile recent evidence that the demand for skill and cognitive tasks and the college wage premium have been declining, while the age wage gap has been increasing. Conversely, the results I obtain question theories that explain long-run trends in US men's labor supply through secular increases in the marginal value of leisure due to improvements in leisure technology. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2022. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Economics.

Em muitos países pobres, um grande número de crianças trabalha e estuda, o que torna de grande importância analisar os fatores que as levam a trabalhar e como o trabalho condiciona seus estudos. No Brasil, há um número expressivo de crianças e adolescentes que trabalham e estudam. Segundo os dados da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD) de 2003, 8,1% das crianças e adolescentes de 7 a 15 anos estudam e trabalham, enquanto 0,8% só trabalham. Neste sentido, avaliou-se, principalmente, o impacto do trabalho infantil sobre o desempenho escolar, prejudicando a performance acadêmica dos alunos. Para tanto, foram utilizados os dados do Sistema Nacional de Avaliação da Educação Básica (SAEB) de 2003, que possui informações de testes padrões de Língua Portuguesa e de Matemática aplicados aos alunos da 4ª e 8ª séries do ensino fundamental (EF) e da 3ª série do ensino médio (EM), em escolas públicas e privadas de todo o país. A literatura aponta dois pontos importantes a serem considerados na estimação de equações de desempenho escolar. Um é a omissão de variáveis relevantes, como habilidade e motivação que pode causar inconsistência nas estimativas dos parâmetros, e outro é a possível endogeneidade da variável trabalha. Será que é o fato de a criança trabalhar que reduz seu desempenho escolar ou é a baixa qualidade das escolas e a desmotivação do aluno pelo baixo desempenho nos estudos que faz com que ele/ela entre no mercado de trabalho? O detalhamento das informações disponíveis no SAEB permite que se analise o impacto do trabalho doméstico em relação ao trabalho realizado fora de casa sobre a performance dos alunos nos exames, assim como a redução do desempenho escolar por hora adicional de trabalho. Dessa forma, foi possível observar se o dano causado aos estudos, quando a criança trabalha no próprio domicílio e próximo de sua família foi ou não menor do que aquele causado quando a criança trabalha fora de casa. Além disso, analisou-se se existe ou não um número mínimo de horas de trabalho que poderia não causar danos aos estudos e também os impactos por hora adicional de trabalho, pontos ainda pouco estudados na literatura existente sobre o assunto. Concluiu-se que o trabalho infantil causa perda de rendimento escolar aos estudantes. Crianças e adolescentes que só se dedicam aos estudos têm melhor desempenho escolar quando confrontados com os que trabalham. Mais horas de trabalho implicam uma diminuição da pontuação nos testes de proficiência aplicados para avaliar o aprendizado dos alunos. Diferenças na condição de ocupação de trabalho (trabalho somente no domicílio e/ou fora dele) influenciam o desempenho escolar. Em comparação aos alunos que têm como atividade somente os estudos, aqueles que trabalham somente no ambiente domiciliar têm perda de desempenho. Aqueles que trabalham somente fora do domicílio têm seu desempenho agravado em comparação aos que não estudam e aos que trabalham no domicílio. O desempenho é ainda mais baixo para aqueles que trabalham nos dois locais. / In many poor countries, a large number of students combine working with studying. This has become of great importance when analyzing the factors that cause students to work and to what extent work prevents children from studying. In Brazil, an impressive number of children and adolescents both study and work. According to a Brazilian household survey, the 2003 Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicilios (PNAD), 8,1 percent of the children and adolescents aged between 7 and 17 years combine working with studying and only 0,8 percent only work. This research has analyzed the impact of child labor on school achievement. For this purpose, we use Brazilian school achievement test data from the 2003 Sistema Nacional de Avaliação da Educação Básica (SAEB), which has information about achievement tests in Portuguese and Mathematics. The achievement tests were administered to students enrolled in the fourth and eighth grades of ensino fundamental (primary school) and to students enrolled in the third year of ensino medio (high school) in public and private schools throughout Brazil. The literature notes two important points to be considered when estimating school achievement equations. The first is omitted variable bias, which arises from excluding variables such as ability and individual motivation. These excluded variables are likely to be correlated with work and with school achievement, leading to a bias on the estimated coefficient for work. The other is the possible endogeneity of the work variable. Is it that when a child works, school performance worsens, or is it that low school quality and the lack of student motivation caused by poor school performance pushes a student into the labor force? The detailed information available in the SAEB data allow us to analyze the impact of domestic work compared to work performed outside the house on students’ performance on the exams, as well as the decrease in achievement test scores for each additional hour of work. In this manner, it is possible to determine if the harm caused by children working in their own households, close to their families, is greater or less than the harm caused when children work outside the house. In addition, it is possible to determine whether there is a minimum number of hours that students can work without harming their school achievement. We can also measure the marginal impacts on children’s achievement of an additional hour of work. Neither of these last two issues has been addressed in the existing literature on child labor and children’s schooling. We conclude, therefore, that child labor causes a loss in students’ achievement in school. Children and adolescents that dedicate all their time to school have better school performance compared to students who work. More per school day implies a decrease in national proficiency test scores. Differences in work conditions affect the school performance of students. In comparison with students that have schooling as their only activity, students who work only at home have lower test scores. Those students who only work outside the house are worse off than those who only work within the house, and students who work both inside and outside the house have the lowest test scores of all the working conditions.

Em muitos países pobres, um grande número de crianças trabalha e estuda, o que torna de grande importância analisar os fatores que as levam a trabalhar e como o trabalho condiciona seus estudos. No Brasil, há um número expressivo de crianças e adolescentes que trabalham e estudam. Segundo os dados da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD) de 2003, 8,1% das crianças e adolescentes de 7 a 15 anos estudam e trabalham, enquanto 0,8% só trabalham. Neste sentido, avaliou-se, principalmente, o impacto do trabalho infantil sobre o desempenho escolar, prejudicando a performance acadêmica dos alunos. Para tanto, foram utilizados os dados do Sistema Nacional de Avaliação da Educação Básica (SAEB) de 2003, que possui informações de testes padrões de Língua Portuguesa e de Matemática aplicados aos alunos da 4ª e 8ª séries do ensino fundamental (EF) e da 3ª série do ensino médio (EM), em escolas públicas e privadas de todo o país. A literatura aponta dois pontos importantes a serem considerados na estimação de equações de desempenho escolar. Um é a omissão de variáveis relevantes, como habilidade e motivação que pode causar inconsistência nas estimativas dos parâmetros, e outro é a possível endogeneidade da variável trabalha. Será que é o fato de a criança trabalhar que reduz seu desempenho escolar ou é a baixa qualidade das escolas e a desmotivação do aluno pelo baixo desempenho nos estudos que faz com que ele/ela entre no mercado de trabalho? O detalhamento das informações disponíveis no SAEB permite que se analise o impacto do trabalho doméstico em relação ao trabalho realizado fora de casa sobre a performance dos alunos nos exames, assim como a redução do desempenho escolar por hora adicional de trabalho. Dessa forma, foi possível observar se o dano causado aos estudos, quando a criança trabalha no próprio domicílio e próximo de sua família foi ou não menor do que aquele causado quando a criança trabalha fora de casa. Além disso, analisou-se se existe ou não um número mínimo de horas de trabalho que poderia não causar danos aos estudos e também os impactos por hora adicional de trabalho, pontos ainda pouco estudados na literatura existente sobre o assunto. Concluiu-se que o trabalho infantil causa perda de rendimento escolar aos estudantes. Crianças e adolescentes que só se dedicam aos estudos têm melhor desempenho escolar quando confrontados com os que trabalham. Mais horas de trabalho implicam uma diminuição da pontuação nos testes de proficiência aplicados para avaliar o aprendizado dos alunos. Diferenças na condição de ocupação de trabalho (trabalho somente no domicílio e/ou fora dele) influenciam o desempenho escolar. Em comparação aos alunos que têm como atividade somente os estudos, aqueles que trabalham somente no ambiente domiciliar têm perda de desempenho. Aqueles que trabalham somente fora do domicílio têm seu desempenho agravado em comparação aos que não estudam e aos que trabalham no domicílio. O desempenho é ainda mais baixo para aqueles que trabalham nos dois locais. / In many poor countries, a large number of students combine working with studying. This has become of great importance when analyzing the factors that cause students to work and to what extent work prevents children from studying. In Brazil, an impressive number of children and adolescents both study and work. According to a Brazilian household survey, the 2003 Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicilios (PNAD), 8,1 percent of the children and adolescents aged between 7 and 17 years combine working with studying and only 0,8 percent only work. This research has analyzed the impact of child labor on school achievement. For this purpose, we use Brazilian school achievement test data from the 2003 Sistema Nacional de Avaliação da Educação Básica (SAEB), which has information about achievement tests in Portuguese and Mathematics. The achievement tests were administered to students enrolled in the fourth and eighth grades of ensino fundamental (primary school) and to students enrolled in the third year of ensino medio (high school) in public and private schools throughout Brazil. The literature notes two important points to be considered when estimating school achievement equations. The first is omitted variable bias, which arises from excluding variables such as ability and individual motivation. These excluded variables are likely to be correlated with work and with school achievement, leading to a bias on the estimated coefficient for work. The other is the possible endogeneity of the work variable. Is it that when a child works, school performance worsens, or is it that low school quality and the lack of student motivation caused by poor school performance pushes a student into the labor force? The detailed information available in the SAEB data allow us to analyze the impact of domestic work compared to work performed outside the house on students’ performance on the exams, as well as the decrease in achievement test scores for each additional hour of work. In this manner, it is possible to determine if the harm caused by children working in their own households, close to their families, is greater or less than the harm caused when children work outside the house. In addition, it is possible to determine whether there is a minimum number of hours that students can work without harming their school achievement. We can also measure the marginal impacts on children’s achievement of an additional hour of work. Neither of these last two issues has been addressed in the existing literature on child labor and children’s schooling. We conclude, therefore, that child labor causes a loss in students’ achievement in school. Children and adolescents that dedicate all their time to school have better school performance compared to students who work. More per school day implies a decrease in national proficiency test scores. Differences in work conditions affect the school performance of students. In comparison with students that have schooling as their only activity, students who work only at home have lower test scores. Those students who only work outside the house are worse off than those who only work within the house, and students who work both inside and outside the house have the lowest test scores of all the working conditions.

This dissertation is divided into five chapters consisting of three short essays that concentrate on economic analysis of health, savings and labor. The first essay is aimed at investigating the influence of increased work hours on individuals’ health and how this may differ between males and females. It is expected that increased hours of work will have a negative impact on health but this impact may be stronger for females. In the second essay, the relationship between individuals’ health and savings behavior is analyzed. Healthy individuals are expected to be more productive, earn higher incomes, and have lower medical expenditures compared to unhealthy individuals. It is therefore expected that individuals’ health will have a positive influence on their saving behavior. The third paper analyzes the effect of increased work, as proxied by labor force participation, on health, as proxied by life expectancy, at the macro level. The main aim of the analysis in the third essay is to investigate whether or not increased female labor force participation is a contributing factor to the narrowing gap between the life expectancy of females and males. In the final chapter of this dissertation, I provide a summary of my findings on the relationships between work, health, and savings. I also provide directions for future research.

Syftet med uppsatsen var att undersöka om socialsekreterare som arbetar med barn och unga inom socialtjänsten upplever att kvaliteten i det klientnära arbetet påverkas av reducerad arbetstid samt om det ser olika ut beroende på erfarenheten inom yrket. Teorier om balans mellan arbets- och privatliv, handlingskompetensens utveckling samt evidensbaserad praktik har använts för att förstå det insamlade materialet. Studien genomfördes genom en webbaserad enkät som skickades ut till enhetschefer inom socialtjänstens enhet för barn och unga i fyra olika svenska kommuner. Enkäten vidarebefordrades till 103 medarbetare varav 34 av dessa svarade. Materialet har analyserats genom univariat och bivariat analys och redovisats genomtabeller, figurer och text. Resultatet visade inget som tyder på att yrkeserfarenhetens längd hos socialsekreterare påverkar upplevelsen av kvalitet i det klientnära arbetet. Resultatet visade även att majoriteten av socialsekreterarna upplevde sig nöjda med kvaliteten gentemot sina klienter samt att de i stor utsträckning hinner med sina tilldelade ärenden inom utsatt tid, oavsett om socialsekreterarna omfattades av arbetstidsförkortning eller inte. Det enda i studiens resultat som tydde på ett samband i upplevelsen av kvalitet i det klientnära arbetet var gällande barnsamtal där socialsekreterarna med arbetstidsförkortning i högre grad ansåg att arbetstiden var tillräcklig för att uppnå god kvalitet i detta arbetsmoment. Slutsatsen var att det verkar finnas ett visst samband mellan socialsekreterare som har arbetstidsförkortning och upplevelsen av att tiden räcker till för att uppnå god kvalitet i barnsamtal samt att arbetstidsförkortningen till syneshar god effekt på socialsekreterare och deras arbetssituation. / The purpose of this essay was to examine whether social workers who work with children and young people in the social services feel that the quality of the client-oriented work is affected by reduced working hours and if it looks different depending on the experience in the profession. Theories of work-life balance, the development of action competence and evidencebased practice have been used to understand the collected material. The study was conducted through a web-based questionnaire that was sent out to unit managers in the social services unit for children and young people in four different Swedish municipalities. The questionnaire was forwarded to 103 employees, of which 34 responded. The material has been analyzed through univariate and bivariate analysis and presented through tables, figures and text. The results showed nothing to indicate that the length of professional experience of social workers affects the experience of quality in the client-oriented work. The results also showed that the majority of the social workers felt satisfied with the quality of their work towards their clients and that they to a large extent had time to do their assigned cases within the set time, regardless of whether the social workers had a reduction in working hours or not. The only thing in the study's results that indicated a correlation in the experience of quality in the client-oriented work was regarding child conversations where the social workers with reduced working hours found to a greater extent considered that the working hours were sufficient to achieve good quality in this task. The conclusion was that there seems to be a definite correlation between social workers who have reduced working hours and the experience that there is enough time to achieve good quality in child conversations and that the shortening of working hours seems to have a good effect on social workers and their work situation.