Particle ingestion in gas turbine applications can be detrimental to performance and pose significant safety concerns. Areas of high sand concentration are hazardous to aircraft, requiring precautions like routine inspections and maintenance. The engine failure modes are dependent on particle composition, concentration, and size. Particles containing certain minerals tend to melt and stick to turbine blades, which is known as glazing. Alternatively, particles may erode blades from repeated collisions, or they may fill cooling passage holes. Therefore, it is necessary to develop systems that identify these parameters as particles are ingested. This thesis introduces three separate systems responsible for collecting sand concentration, size distribution, and material composition of sand. A particle visualization technique (ParVis), developed at Virginia Tech, was used to validate two sensors developed by commercial partners. One sensor measures particle size and velocity with a method similar to Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV). The second sensor measures particle composition with X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) by physically sampling particles in a flow. There has been little research on applying XRF to moving particles, so experimental data were collected to demonstrate the effectiveness of the sensor. Detection comparisons between two particle types showed promising outcomes for the XRF. Meanwhile, the ParVis technique was iterated to overcome previous limitations and implemented into the testing process to provide particle concentration measurements. Particularly, improvements led to increased accuracy and reliability of the method such as reducing variance in concentration approximations. / Master of Science / Aircraft are constantly ingesting particles into their engines. Those operating in dusty environments are at higher risks of engine failure because more particles are ingested, which cause damage in several ways. As engine manufacturers push the turbine operating temperatures higher for efficiency and emissions, sand particles reach melting temperatures and stick to turbine blades, which results in overheating. Because of the potential risks to life, sand ingestion research continues to provide solutions for improving aircraft safety. This study explores the capabilities of new sensors to quantify characteristics of ingested particles, including the concentration, size distribution, and material composition of sand. An illumination technique for measuring sand concentration from particle imaging was developed at Virginia Tech. The technique was iterated to overcome previous limitations and improve its reliability during this study. It provides a more accurate depiction of the testing conditions that can be used to diagnose and calibrate sensors. In this case, two sensors issued by Creare were tested, one of which measures size and particle velocity, while the other measures sand composition. The first sensor relies on non-intrusive optical measurements and can be mounted directly to an engine inlet. The second sensor collects particles from the inlet flow and applies X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) to the moving particles. There has been little research on applying XRF to a flow of particles, so experimental data were critical to demonstrate the effectiveness of the sensor. technique was iterated to overcome previous limitations and implemented into the testing process to provide particle concentration measurements.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第18591号 / 工博第3952号 / 新制||工||1607(附属図書館) / 31491 / 京都大学大学院工学研究科材料工学専攻 / (主査)教授 河合 潤, 教授 酒井 明, 教授 伊藤 秋男 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DFAM

<p>X-ray fluorescence (XRF) detection of heavy metals is a cost- and time-effective method for investigation of polluted areas. Compared to laboratory analysis, XRF analysis is limited by high detection limits and uncertainties in some situations. Preparation of samples is known to affect the results of measurements.</p><p>The purpose of this thesis is to bring a deeper understanding of how different factors affect the results of XRF-analysis. A large number of measurements have been made with the instruments Niton XLt 700 and Niton Xli 700. Results from measurements of lead, zinc and copper have been analysed.</p><p>This study has shown that a greater moisture content will give a lower measured concentration for the same sample. If the moisture content is known, it is possible to make good approximations of concentrations in dry samples. No obvious differences were found between different metals.</p><p>Proper homogenisation of samples was found to be one of the most critical issues. It should be noted that laboratories do not usually homogenise samples prior to analysis, so samples sent for laboratory verification should therefore be homogenised before sending.</p><p>Sample preparation, including drying, sieving to finer grain-sizes and analysing in a special sample cup was found to increase the measured concentrations and decrease the variation between measurements. The concentrations differed with different sample matrices and with sample preparation. Because of the differences, measurements should always be correlated with laboratory analysis before any conclusions can be made. In situations when metals are well within detection range of the XRF instrument, the only preparation needed is in most cases homogenisation. If metal levels are just at the limit, or just below the detection limit, further preparations of samples should be made. When drying samples makes detection possible, more preparation is usually not worth the effort. If detection limits still are a problem after drying, the samples should be sieved and analysed in sample cups. In situations where concentrations still are below the</p><p>detection limit when analysing in sample cups, or if the measurements are disturbed for other reasons, another method than XRF-analysis must be used. When XRF analysis is possible, the method is preferable compared to only laboratory analysis. This cost- and time effective method makes a larger number of measurements possible, and gives a more complete overview of a polluted area.</p> / <p>Analys med röntgenfluorescensdetektor (XRF) är en snabb och kostnadseffektiv fältmetod för detektion av tungmetaller i mark. Nackdelen är att mätningarna inte är tillförlitliga i alla sammanhang och att detektionsgränsen för många ämnen är förhållandevis hög. Det är sedan tidigare känt att olika former av provbearbetning påverkar mätresultaten.</p><p>I detta examensarbete har undersökts hur olika faktorer påverkar mätresultaten vid analys av jordprover med XRF instrument. Faktorerna som undersökts är inverkan av vattenkvot, kornstorlek, provpåsar och olika provbearbetningsmetoder. Vid provbearbetningsförsöken skickades prover även in till externt laboratorium för jämförande analys. Metaller som undersökts är bly, zink och koppar.</p><p>Vid undersökningen konstaterades att en ökad vattenkvot ger upphov till lägre mätvärden. Vid kännedom om vattenkvot kan halt per torrsubstans med god överensstämmelse uppskattas utifrån mätningar på fuktiga prov. Är precisionskraven stora och vattenkvoten varierande och okänd bör dock proverna torkas innan mätningar görs. Ingen avsevärd skillnad sågs mellan de olika metaller som undersöktes.</p><p>Vid undersökningen om provbearbetningens betydelse visade det sig att homogeniseringen av proverna är mycket viktig, inte minst av prover som skickas till laboratorieanalys.</p><p>Ökad provbearbetning med torkning och siktning till mindre kornstorlek tenderar att ge högre mätvärden med XRF instrument. Storleksmässigt är mätvärden vid obearbetade prov mest överensstämmande med laboratorieanalys. Mest skiljer sig analys på finsiktade prover i provkopp. Korrelationsmässigt finns i en del fall en tendens till bättre överensstämmelse med mer bearbetade prov. Den största vinsten med ökad bearbetning av prover konstaterades i detta arbete vara att mark med lägre metallkoncentrationer då kan analyseras.</p><p>I de fall där halterna av metaller ligger väl inom XRF instrumentets detektionsområde visade det sig att det oftast är tillräckligt att endast homogenisera proverna innan analys görs. I de fall där koncentrationen av metaller är på gränsen till vad XRF instrumentet kan detektera rekommenderas att proverna torkas, eller om nödvändigt torkas, siktas och analyseras i provkopp. Där nivåerna av metaller ligger under detektionsgränsen för XRF instrument trots provbearbetning, eller där andra ämnen till exempel järn stör mätningarna, måste en annan analysmetod väljas.</p>

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La lithiase urinaire est une affection très répandue qui touche 4 à 18% de la population selon les pays. Cette pathologie nécessite beaucoup de recherches pluridisciplinaires. Le travail présenté dans cette thèse a pour objet de préciser la nature des calculs urinaires de l’Est Algérien et d’étudier ensuite le rôle de certains éléments traces ainsi que l’effet de quelques extraits de plantes médicinales sur la dissolution des calculs urinaires. Les techniques utilisées sont principalement les suivantes : la spectrophotométrie infrarouge à transformée de Fourier pour déterminer la composition chimique des calculs, la fluorescence X afin de déterminer la nature et la teneur des éléments traces et la microscopie électronique à balayage pour explorer la structure intime des cristallites à l’échelle mésoscopique. D’autres méthodes comme la microscopie optique ont été utilisées pour faire l’analyse morphoconstitutionnelle des calculs. Enfin, un modèle expérimental in vitro a été développé pour étudier l’effet des plantes médicinales. Bien que le nombre de calculs urinaires considérés soit faible, l’épidémiologie de la lithiase dans cette région de l’Algérie a été esquissée. Les calculs d’oxalate de calcium deviennent prépondérants en raison d’un changement des habitudes alimentaires avec toutefois une persistance des calculs d’origine infectieuse que l’infection soit urinaire ou digestive. Les données recueillies sur la distribution des éléments traces ne soulignent pas leur rôle catalytique mais sont en faveur d’un simple processus d’adsorption. Aucun des extraits de plantes testés, tous issus de la pharmacopée algérienne, n’a eu d’effet tangible pour dissoudre les calculs urinaires. / Urolithiasis is a widespread disease that affects 4-18% of the population according to the countries. This pathology requires a lot of multidisciplinary research. The work presented here aims firstly to clarify the nature of urinary stones in the eastern Algeria and then investigate the role of trace elements as well as the effect of some medicinal plants on the dissolution of urinary stones. The techniques used are mainly the following: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to determine the chemical composition of the calculi, X-ray fluorescence to determine the nature and content of trace elements and scanning electron microscopy to explore the inner structure of the crystallites at the mesoscopic scale. Other methods such as stereomicroscopy have been used for the morpho-constitutional analysis of the calculi and an experimental model was developed for the study of the effect of medicinal plants in vitro.Although the number of urinary stones considered being low, the epidemiology of urolithiasis in this region of Algeria was sketched. Calcium oxalate stones become predominant due to a change in eating habits but with a persistence of infection-induced calculi persist, whatever the urinary tract or gut origin of the infection. The acquired data do not underline a catalytic role of trace elements detected within the stones but are in favor of a simple adsorption process. None of the tested extracts from the Algerian pharmacopoeia has had a significant effect to dissolve the urinary stones.

Uma das maiores causas da alta taxa de mortalidade em todo o mundo está relacionada com a neoplasia em tecidos. Particularmente, o câncer de mama é o segundo tipo desta doença que mais atinge mulheres no Brasil. O diagnóstico precoce certamente pode diminuir o risco de morte de pessoas com este tipo de doença e o tratamento e a prevenção são certamente grandes desafios enfrentados pela medicina contemporânea. Atualmente, vem surgindo uma nova ferramenta de potencial diagnóstico, baseada no estudo de alguns elementos químicos que estão presentes em pequena quantidade no organismo, conhecidos como elementos traços. Estes elementos, responsáveis por algumas funções biológicas, podem apresentar-se em diferentes concentrações em tecidos normais e neoplásicos, o que pode indicar as mudanças histopatológicas dos tecidos e tornar possível a identificação de cada tipo de neoplasia. Desta forma, o estudo e determinação dos elementos traços em tecidos neoplásicos, que é o foco deste trabalho, apresenta uma nova área de interesse de investigação, principalmente pela possibilidade de oferecer informações diagnósticas, melhorando sua eficiência e em conseqüência, melhorando o prognóstico da paciente. Neste trabalho, utilizando a técnica de Fluorescência de Raios-X com feixes polienergéticos e monoenergéticos, determinamos as concentrações dos elementos traços em tecidos mamários normais e neoplásicos. Foram estudadas ao total 101 amostras de tecidos mamários normais, neoplásicos e tecidos normais adjacentes às neoplasias. As correções para os efeitos de matriz foram realizadas pelo método de padrão externo e pelo método de radiação espalhada para feixes polienergético e monoenergético respectivamente. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que todos os elementos analisados estão em níveis elevados nas espécies neoplásicas em relação às normais. Nas medidas com feixe polienergético foram verificadas diferenças significativas entre as concentrações dos elementos cobre e zinco entre tecidos normais e neoplásicos de amostras pareadas (p < 0,005) e não pareadas (p < 0,001). Com feixe monoenergético, foram obtidas diferenças significativas entre as concentrações de todos os elementos (Ca, Fe, Cu e Zn) em tecidos normais e neoplásicos de amostras pareadas e não pareadas (ambas com p < 0,001). Para as concentrações dos elementos cálcio e zinco foram observadas ainda diferenças significativas entre tecidos neoplásicos benignos e malignos (p < 0,001 e p < 0,002 respectivamente). A quantificação das concentrações dos elementos traços em tecidos normais e neoplásicos pode vir, portanto, auxiliar com precisão o diagnóstico das neoplasias de mama. / One of the major causes of the elevated rate of mortality in the whole world is related with the neoplasies in tissues. Particularly, the breast cancer is the second type of this disease that more reaches women in Brazil. Early diagnosis certainly can reduce the death risk in people with this type of disease and the treatment and prevention are certainly the great challenge found by medicine today. At present, it comes appearing a new diagnostic tool, based in the study of some chemical elements that are in small amount in the organism, known as trace elements. These elements, responsible for some biological functions, can be in different concentrations in healthy and neoplasics tissues that can indicate histopatological changes of breast cancer tissues, and become possible the identification of each type of neoplasies. In this way, the study and determination of trace elements in neoplastic tissues, the aim of this work, can be a new area of interest, mainly for the possibility to offer diagnostic information, improving its efficiency and in consequence, to improve the prognostic of the patient. In this work, using X-ray Fluorescence technique with polienergetic and monoenergetic beams, we determined the concentrations of the trace elements in healthy and neoplastic breast tissues. A total of 101 samples of healthy, neoplastic and adjacent normal tissues to neoplasies had been studied. The corrections for the matrix effect had been carried through by the method of external standard and by the method of scattered radiation for polienergetic and monoenergetic beams respectively. Results showed that all the analyzed elements are in raised levels in the neoplastic tissues in relation to the normal ones. In procedures with polienergetic beam significant differences between the concentrations of the elements copper and zinc had been verified between normal and neoplastic tissues of paired samples (p < 0,005) and independent samples (p < 0.001). With monoenergetic beam, concentrations of all elements (Ca, Fe, Cu and Zn) in healthy and neoplastic tissues of paired and independent samples showed significant differences (all with p < 0.001). For concentrations of the elements calcium and zinc significant differences between benign and malignant neoplastic tissues had been observed (0.001 p < and p < 0,002 respectively). The quantification of concentrations of trace elements in normal and neoplastic tissues can, therefore, support with precision the breast cancer diagnosis.

Este trabalho apresenta estratégias para análise quantitativa e semiquantitativa por Espectrometria de Fluorescência por Dispersão de Energia de Raios-X (EDXRF) em três situações típicas: a) materiais homogêneos cujos componentes estejam majoritariamente dentro do campo de detecção da técnica (análise quantitativa), b) materiais homogêneos cujos componentes estejam majoritariamente fora do campo de detecção da técnica (análise quantitativa de elementos minoritários detectados) e, c) materiais heterogêneos em camadas sobrepostas cujos componentes de interesse analítico estejam dentro do campo de detecção da técnica (análise semi-quantitativa de elementos detectados). O trabalho descreve os dois espectrômetros utilizados para as medidas, desenvolvidos no laboratório. Para a determinação das áreas dos picos, foi utilizado principalmente o software PyMCA, desenvolvido pelo CERN. Para a determinação de composições, foram utilizados dois softwares de análise quantitativa que utilizam o método dos Parâmetros Fundamentais. O primeiro é o PyMCA, que efetua de forma integrada o ajuste dos picos e a determinação dos teores. O segundo pertence ao pacote Ara-Lihuen, desenvolvido no próprio laboratório, e obtém teores a partir de áreas dos picos. O trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de rotinas do Ara-Lihuen que permitem a verificação de etapas intermediárias de cálculo. / This work presents the strategies for quantitative and semi quantitative analyses by Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) in three typical situations: a) homogeneous materials whose components are mainly within the field of detection of the technique (quantitative analysis), b) homogenous materials whose components are mostly outside the field of detection of the technique (quantitative analysis of low-content detected elements), and c) heterogeneous materials in superposed layers (semi-quantitative analysis of detected elements). The work describes the two spectrometers used for measurement, developed in the laboratory. For the determination of peak areas, it was used mainly PyMCA software developed by CERN. For the determination of compositions, two quantitative Fundamental- Parameters based (FP) softwares were used. The first is PyMCA, that performs simultaneously the fitting of peaks and the determination the contents. The second belongs to the Ara-Lihuen package, developed in the laboratory, and obtains contents from peak areas. The work presents the development of Ara-Lihuen routines that allow verification of intermediate calculation steps.

O trabalho apresenta procedimentos e resultados referentes à análise de solos, rejeitos ferrosos de origem mínero-metalúrgica, ligas ferrosas e minérios ferrosos por espectroscopia de fluorescência de raios X com dispersão de energia (EDXRF), com vistas especialmente à identificação e quantificação de metais pesados em ensaios realizados com equipamento portátil. Para solos e lamas, foram realizados estudos com e sem o recurso de adições de padrões internos. Em ambos os casos, foram ignorados os teores de elementos leves importantes como alumínio e silício. Sem a adição de padrões internos, não se obtiveram resultados absolutos, e os teores dos elementos claramente identificados eram expressos de modo relativo. Com a adição de padrões internos, foi possível expressar os teores daqueles elementos como valores absolutos. Para a análise de ligas ferrosas e minérios, utilizou-se o recurso da fluorescência secundária com alvo de ferro, para aumentar a excitação dos elementos mais leves que o ferro e diminuir a intensidade dos picos de escape da família Fe-K. Com este recurso, obteve-se uma elevada correlação entre as áreas dos picos destes elementos e seus teores nominais. Para determinação dos elementos mais pesados que o ferro, utilizou-se o feixe direto. Foi elaborada metodologia para conciliar os resultados obtidos com feixe direto e os obtidos com fluorescência secundária, obtendo-se uma boa aderência aos valores dos teores nominais. Complementarmente o trabalho apresenta uma forma alternativa de estimar erros quantitativos, baseando-se em simulações de espectros, e traz uma forma de visualizar o espectro sob o domínio da frequência para encontrar e remover ruído. / The work presents procedures and results concerning the analysis of soils, ferrous wastes of mineral-metallurgical origin, ferrous alloys and ferrous minerals by Energy-Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence spectroscopy (EDXRF), with a special focus on the identification and quantification of heavy metals in tests performed with portable equipment. For soils and sludges, studies were carried out with and without the use of additions of internal standards. In both cases, the contents of important light elements such as aluminum and silicon were ignored. Without the addition of internal standards, no absolute results were obtained, and the contents of the clearly identified elements were expressed in relative terms. With the addition of internal standards, it was possible to express the contents of these elements as absolute values. For the analysis of ferrous alloys and ores, the secondary fluorescence with iron target was used to increase the excitation of lighter elements than iron and to reduce the intensity of the escape peaks of the Fe-K family. With this feature, a high correlation was obtained between the areas of the peaks of these elements and their nominal contents. To determine the elements heavier than iron, the direct beam was used. A methodology was developed to reconcile the results obtained with direct beam and those obtained with secondary fluorescence, obtaining a good adhesion to the values of the nominal values. In addition, the work presents an alternative way of estimating quantitative errors, based on spectra simulations, and provides a way to visualize the spectrum under the frequency domain to find and remove noise.

Por décadas a radiação infravermelha tem sido usada de forma estética e terapêutica, e é caracterizada por ter a propriedade de penetrar na pele. O surgimento de novas tecnologias permitiu a criação de têxteis funcionais, entre eles os tecidos contendo biocerâmica, que absorvem o calor do corpo, ativando a biocerâmica presente e emitindo raios infravermelhos longos, que penetram na pele ativando a microcirculação sanguínea. Porém, tecidos desse tipo só tiveram eficiência comprovada por testes clínicos, que são métodos caros e demorados, ou por analogia baseada no tipo de construção. O objetivo deste estudo foi elaborar um método prático para medir a emissividade de tecidos contendo biocerâmica, utilizando um espectrofotômetro de raios infravermelhos, comparar a emissividade desses tecidos, além de realizar uma análise de fluorescência de raios X a fim de descobrir os elementos químicos presentes nos tecidos, para confirmar quaisquer diferenças de emissividade entre os mesmos. Concluiu-se que é possível medir a emissividade de tecidos contendo biocerâmica através do aquecimento das amostras, simulando a ação do tecido junto ao corpo, e posteriormente realizando ensaios em um espectrofotômetro de infravermelhos por transformada de Fourier, onde picos de emissão foram encontrados em cada tecido analisado, o que possibilitou o cálculo da emissividade (expressa em contagens de área) através do ajuste de uma curva gaussiana em cada pico de emissão. Através da fluorescência de raios X foram encontrados diferentes elementos químicos na composição das amostras, podem ser a causa da diferença de emissividade entre os tecidos / The infrared radiation has been used on aesthetic and therapeutic way for decades, and is characterized for being able to penetrate deeply underneath the skin. New technologies appeared, enabling the development of functional textiles, among them textiles containing bioceramics that absorb the body heat, activating the bioceramic on it and emitting far infrared rays, which penetrate into the skin, activating the blood microcirculation. However, the efficiency of this sort of fabrics was proven only by clinical tests, which are very expensive and time consuming, and by construction analogy. The main objective of this study was to develop a practical method for measuring fabrics containing bioceramics emissivity, using an infrared spectrophotometer, comparing the fabrics emissivity, besides doing an X ray fluorescence analysis in order to discover the chemical elements that composes the fabrics, to confirm any emissivity differences between them. It was concluded that it is possible to measure the emissivity of fabrics containing bioceramics by heating the samples, simulating the action of the fabric on the body, and subsequently performing tests on a Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer, where emission peaks were found on the fabrics, that enabled the emissivity calculation (expressed in area counts) by adjusting a Gaussian curve at each emission peak. By the X ray fluorescence different chemical elements were found on the fabrics composition, which can be the reason for the emissivity difference between them

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