The potential value of the Y chromosome for forensic applications has been recognized for some time with the current work dedicated to Short Tandem Repeat analysis and Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) discovery. This study examined the ability of two different SNP analysis methods to determine if they could be utilized in forensic applications and ultimately be developed into an established system for Y chromosome SNP analysis. This study examined two principle SNP analysis systems: single base extension and Pyrosequencing. Pyrosequencing was determined to be superior to single base extension, due to the wealth of information provided with sequencing and the flexibility of designing primers for analysis. Using Pyrosequencing, 50 Y chromosome loci were examined and the minimum loci required for maximum diversity for the development of a Y chromosome SNP analysis system were chosen. Thirteen loci were selected based on their ability to discriminate 60 different individuals from three different racial groups into 15 different haplogroups. The Y chromosome SNP analysis system developed utilized nested PCR for the amplification of all 13 loci. Then they were sequenced as groups, ranging from one to three loci, in a single reaction. The Y chromosome SNP analysis system developed here has the potential for forensic application since it has shown to be successful in the analysis of blood, buccal swabs, semen, and saliva, works with as little as 5 pg of starting DNA material, and will amplify only male DNA in the presence of male/female mixtures in which the female portion of the sample overwhelmed the male portion 30,000 to 1.

Aside from few model organisms, little is known about early embryonic development or sex determination in insects, in particular mosquitoes which are major vectors of worldwide disease. The goals of this work were to investigate a mosquito-specific transcription factor and its intronic miRNA cluster and characterize a novel Y chromosome gene in An. stephensi. The aims of these experiments were to expand on the knowledge of genes involved in embryonic development and sex determination with potential application in vector control strategies. In Ae. aegypti a mosquito-specific bZIP1 transcription factor was demonstrated to be conserved among divergent mosquito species. It was maternally and zygotically-expressed and knock-down of bZIP1 mRNA via siRNA microinjection in the embryo resulted in embryonic death. The expression profile of this gene was determined through the use of RT-PCR and qRT-PCR. Additionally, this gene contains a miRNA cluster that is also relatively conserved amongst members of the Culicidae family suggesting its evolutionary importance. The miRNAs are also maternally and zygotically expressed and are the most abundant embryonic miRNAs as determined by small RNA sequencing and Northern analysis. Promoter activity for bZIP1 was characterized and the promoter was used to direct maternal and zygotic transgene expression in An. stephensi. Y chromosome genes were successfully identified in An. stephensi from Illumina sequencing data. This work focused on a gene unique to the Y 1 (GUY1). It was shown that GUY1 was male specific and linked to the Y chromosome. RT-PCR and single embryo analysis suggested that GUY1 was expressed during the maternal to zygotic transition and was only expressed in male embryos. It was shown in multiple transient and transgenic assays that the ectopic expression of GUY1 can influence the sex of subjected individuals and skew sex distribution to a male bias. There is still much to be investigated before a GUY1-based transgenic line can be tested and implemented for use in vector population control. However, the work in this dissertation represents a major step towards novel mosquito control strategies based on the manipulation of Y chromosome genes. / Ph. D.

Unlike the autosomes, the Y chromosome in humans and other primates has few protein coding genes, with only a few dozen single-copy genes and several tandem duplicated gene families, called the "ampliconic" genes. The interaction of many biological and evolutionary factors is responsible for this structural heterogeneity among different parts of the genome. We sequenced and assayed the copy numbers of Y-linked, single-copy genes and ampliconic genes in a group of closely related macaque monkeys, then fit models of gene family evolution to this data along with whole genome data from human, chimpanzee, and rhesus macaque. Our results (i) recovered evidence for several novel examples of gene conversion in papionin monkeys, (ii) indicate that ampliconic gene families evolve faster than autosomal gene families and than single-copy genes on the Y chromosome, and that (iii) Y-linked singleton and autosomal gene families evolved faster in great apes than they do in other Old World higher Primates. These findings highlight the evolutionary eccentricity of duplicated genes on the Y chromosome and suggest an important role for natural selection and gene conversion in the evolution of Y-linked gene duplicates. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

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Markers on the non-recombining region of chromosome Y is a useful tool for study of diversity between populations. SNPs are the most commom polymorphisms in human genome. Mutation rate of SNPs is very low and so they may be used as genetic markers in evolutionary and population studies. We have analyzed 205 unrelated men from 11 Sub-Saharan Fulani's subpopulations. Fulani are an ethnic group of people spread over many countries, mainly in West Africa. Our samples are from Tindangou area, Banfora area (Burkina Faso), Bongor area, Linia area (Chad), Diafarabé area (Mali), Tcheboua area (Cameroon), Banfora area, Diffa area, Zinder area, Ader area and Abalak area (Niger). Using kit Signet Y-SNP Identification Systems and Luminex instrument with LabMAP Luminex Technology we detected particular Y chromosome's SNPs. LabMAP Luminex Technology is universal array platform, which as a probe using fluorescent polystyrene microspheres. We have observed 12 different haplogroups. Haplogroup E, which is typical African haplogroups, is determined with derivated allele in polymorfism M96. We have detected haplogroup E in maximum of 89,3% in the Fulani's subpopulations. In 7,8% we have detected haplogroup R, which is characteristic of populations in the Euroasia. Gene pool of Fulani's population is influenced with a...

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Marcadores genéticos presentes no cromossomo Y, como os microssatélites (Y-STRs) e polimorfismos de único nucleotídeo (Y-SNPs) são utilizados na caracterização de linhagens masculinas, visto que são transmitidos às gerações seguintes sem alterações, a menos que ocorram mutações (Singh et al., 2011; Mitchell & Hammer, 1996; Butler, 2009). Por isso, esses marcadores são amplamente empregados em diversas situações, destacando-se o uso constante dos Y-STRs na genética forense por apresentarem alta capacidade de discriminar linhagens. Recentemente, foram descritos 13 marcadores com taxas de mutação substancialmente superiores àquelas verificadas para loci STR do cromossomo Y, denominados Rapidly Mutating (RM) Y-STRs (Ballantyne et al., 2010; Kayser et al., 2012). Devido às taxas de mutação elevadas, os RM-YSTRs apresentam maior eficiência na discriminação entre indivíduos proximamente relacionados, pertencentes à mesma linhagem patrilínea. O presente trabalho buscou aprofundar o conhecimento acerca das características populacionais e mutacionais dos loci RM-YSTRs em amostra do Rio de Janeiro, contribuindo com estudos desta natureza na população brasileira. Realizou-se a análise de 13 loci do cromossomo Y em 258 indivíduos do sexo masculino, compondo 129 pares de pais e filhos, nascidos no estado do Rio de Janeiro. O DNA das amostras foi extraído, conforme os protocolos vigentes na rotina do LDD-UERJ. As sequências genéticas de interesse foram amplificadas pela técnica de reação em cadeira da polimerase (PCR) através da realização de três PCR multiplex, cujos produtos de amplificação foram separados por eletroforese em sequenciador automático ABI-3500 (Applied Biosystems). Para os pares pai/filho que apresentaram haplótipos mutados, empregou-se a técnica de sequenciamento para confirmação das mutações. Os loci RM-YSTR geraram um poder de discriminação de 1,0 na amostra analisada, o que significa que todos os 129 indivíduos da amostra populacional apresentaram haplótipos diferentes para tais marcadores, com frequências de 0,0077 e diversidade haplotípica igual a 1. Além disso, foram obtidos valores elevados de diversidade gênica para os 13 marcadores. A análise de distância genética e os resultados de AMOVA baseados nos valores de Fst demonstraram que os RM-YSTR não indicam subdivisão populacional e traços ancestrais comuns. Tais valores estão associados às elevadas taxas de mutação encontradas, cuja média foi de 2,11 x 10-2. Foi possível observar que os loci RM-YSTR são muito discriminativos na amostra miscigenada analisada, além de terem maior capacidade de diferenciar indivíduos do que outros conjuntos de marcadores normalmente usados em estudos populacionais e análises forenses. Sendo assim, é possível concluir que os marcadores RM-YSTR são promissores para discriminar indivíduos da mesma linhagem patrilínea, visto que devido às suas elevadas taxas mutacionais e poder de discriminação, são capazes de diferenciar indivíduos de maneira mais eficiente do que os outros conjuntos de STR. Porém, é necessário maior número de estudos para melhor caracterização destes loci em diferentes populações. / Genetic markers on Y chromosome, as microsatellites (Y-STRs) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (Y-SNPs) are used for the characterization of male lineages, since they are fully transmitted to next generations unless mutations occurs (Singh et al., 2011; Mitchell & Hammer, 1996; Butler, 2009). Therefore, these markers are widely applied in several situations, highlighting the constant use of Y-STRs in the field of forensic genetics because of their high capacity of discriminate lineages. Recently, 13 rapidly mutating markers were described due to their highly mutation rates in comparison to other common Y-chromosome STRs, being called as Rapidly Mutating Y-STR (RM-YSTR) (Ballantyne et al., 2010; Kayser et al., 2012). As a result of their high mutation rates, RM-YSTRs display high efficiency in discriminating paternally related males. The present work aimed to deepen the knowledge about population and mutational RM-YSTR loci characteristics in Rio de Janeiro sample, and then, contribute to other studies with this purpose in Brazilian population. Y chromosome 13 STRs analysis was realized in 258 males born in Rio de Janeiro state, grouped in 129 fathers/sons pairs. The extraction of DNA from biological samples was performed according to routine protocols from LDD-UERJ. Target sequences were amplified by three polimerase chain reactions (PCR) and the amplicons were separated through electrophoresis on automated sequencer ABI-3500 (Applied Biosystems). When mutations were detected, they were confirmed by sequencing. Among the investigated sample, RM-YSTR loci showed a discrimination capacity of 1,0 which means that all 129 analyzed individuals have different haplotypes for these markers, displaying frequencies of 0,0077 and haplotype diversity of 1,0. Moreover, high values of genetic diversities were obtained for the 13 markers. Distance genetic analysis and AMOVA values based on Fst results did not show population substructure and common ancestral traits. These results are associated with high mutation rates found, with an average rate about 2,11 x 10-2. RM-YSTR showed to be very discriminative at this mixed sample, besides proving to be more discriminative than other markers commonly used in population studies and forensic analysis. Thus, it is possible to conclude that RM-YSTR markers are promising to discriminate individuals of the same male strain and due to their high mutation rates and discrimination capacity, they are able to differentiate individuals better than other common markers. Nevertheless, for a better characterization of these loci in different populations more studies are needed.

A infertilidade é um problema de saúde pública com um significativo impacto social, econômico e psicológico. Em todo o mundo, a incidência da infertilidade entre a população geral é estimada em 10-15%. Cerca de 50% da infertilidade dos casais são de origem masculina. Em mais da metade dos homens inférteis, a causa da infertilidade é desconhecida (idiopática). Etiologicamente, a infertilidade masculina apresenta causas genéticas e não genéticas. Dentre as causas genéticas mais conhecidas temos mutação do receptor de andrógenos, mutação do gene regulador da condutibilidade transmembrana da fibrose cística (CFTR), anomalias cromossômicas clássicas, anomalias meióticas, microdeleções do cromossomo Y, etc. As anomalias cromossômicas são encontradas com muito mais frequência em homens inférteis, com uma incidência de 4-16% em relação à incidência de 0,4% na população fértil. Estudos mostram que as CNVs também podem estar relacionadas com a infertilidade masculina, especificamente com a falha na espermatogênese. CNVs encontradas tanto no cromossomo Y quanto nos cromossomos autossômicos também foram associadas a possíveis falhas na espermatogênese. Um outro fator que também pode estar envolvido com a infertilidade masculina é a expressão desregulada dos miRNAs. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo promover a análise em larga escala da distribuição de CNVs e do perfil transcricional dos miRNAs em amostras de biopsias testiculares de paciente com azoospermia. Para o estudo das CNVs nós utilizamos a metodologia do CytoScan HDTM da Affymetrix. O perfil transcricional de miRNAs nos indivíduos estudados foi avaliado por meio da tecnologia de microarranjos também da plataforma Affymetrix. Para estas analises montamos dois grupos de estudo (Parada de Maturação (MA) de Células Germinativas e Síndrome de Células Sertoli Only (SCOS)) e um grupo controle (azoospermia obstrutiva e espermatogênese normal). Através das análises das CNVs nós encontramos 94 CNVs nos cromossomos autossômicos e sexuais, 35 (37%) CNVs foram classificadas como benignas, 24 (23%) como potencialmente benignas, sete CNVs (7,4%) como patogênicas e sete foram classificadas como potencialmente patogênica. Todas as CNVs classificadas como patogênica estão presentes no cromossomo Y, cinco CNVs são do tipo duplicação e duas do tipo deleção. A CNV do tipo duplicação foi encontrada no paciente MA e a CNV do tipo deleção foi encontrada no paciente SCOS. As CNVs se sobrepõem e quando analisadas em conjunto (formando uma única CNV de cada condição) elas apresentam um tamanho parecido. Estas CNVs apresentam genes envolvidos na espermatogênese. As CNVs classificadas como potencialmente patogênicas estavam presentes nos cromossomos autossômicos e cromossomo X. Nestas CNVs estavam presentes genes que foram associados com a falha na espermatogênese. A análise da expressão dos miRNAs revelou um perfil transicional muito mais alterado nos pacientes com SCOS. As duas condições apresentaram miRNAs exclusivos, mas também compartilharam: 30 miRNAs. Nós identificamos duas famílias de miRNAs (miR449 e miR34) diferencialmente expressos nas duas condições e que apresentam expressão preferencial no testículo. Nossos resultados mostram que alterações no número de copias (CNVs) no cromossomo Y levam a infertilidade masculina e CNVs nos cromossomos autossômicos e X podem levar a infertilidade masculina. As alterações do tipo deleção podem levar a uma falha na espermatogênese maior que as alterações do tipo duplicação. A expressão diferencial dos miRNAs em tecido testicular de pacientes com diferenças histopatológicas (SCOS e MA) apresentam um padrão de expressão de miRNAs diferentes devido ao tipo de células germinativas que eles apresentam no tecido epitelial do testículo. / Infertility is a public health problem with significant social, economic and psychological impact. Worldwide, the incidence of infertility in the general population is estimated at 10- 15%. Approximately 50% of infertility of couples is of male origin. In more than half of infertile men, the cause of infertility is unknown (idiopathic). Etiologically, male infertility has genetic and non-genetic causes. Among the best known genetic causes we found the mutation of the androgen receptor, the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), classic chromosomal abnormalities, meiotic abnormalities and microdeletions of the Y chromosome. Chromosomal abnormalities are found much more frequently in infertile men, with an incidence of 4-16% in the incidence of 0.4% in the fertile population. Studies show that CNVs can also be related to male infertility, specifically in the failure of spermatogenesis. CNVs found in both the Y and autosomes chromosomes were also associated with possible failures in spermatogenesis. Another factor that may also be involved in male infertility is the deregulated expression of miRNAs. This work aimed to promote the analysis of large-scale distribution of CNVs and the transcriptional profile of miRNAs in testicular biopsy samples from patients with azoospermia. For the study of CNV we used the CytoScan HDTM Affymetrix methodology and the transcriptional profile of miRNAs in the samples was assessed by means of microarray technology from Affymetrix platform. For these analyzes we set up two study groups (Stop Maturation (MA) of Germ Cells and Sertoli Cell Only Syndrome (SCOS)) and compared them to a control group (obstructive azoospermia, normal spermatogenesis). Through analysis of CNVs, we found 94 CNVs in sexual and autosomes chromosomes, 35 (37%) were classified as benign CNVs, 24 (23%) as a potentially benign seven CNVs (7.4%) as pathogenic and 7 were classified as potentially pathogenic. All CNVs classified as pathogenic are present on the Y chromosome, five CNVs are of duplication type and two are deletion type. The duplication type CNV was found in MA patients and deletion type CNV was found in SCOS patient. We identified that CNVs overlap and when analyzed jointed - as a single CNV of each condition - they have a similar size. These CNVs have genes involved in spermatogenesis. CNVs classified as potentially pathogenic were present in autosomes and in the X chromosome. In these CNVs were present genes that were associated with failure in spermatogenesis. The analysis of the expression of miRNAs revealed a transitional profile much more altered in patients with SCOS. The two conditions presented exclusive miRNAs, but shared 30 miRNAs differentially expressed when compared to the control group. We identify two families of miRNAs (miR449 and miR34) which exhibit preferential expression in testis as differentially expressed in both conditions. Our results show that changes in the number of copies (CNVs) on the Y chromosome lead to male infertility and CNVs in autosomes and X chromosomes may lead to male infertility. The deletion type changes can lead to a failure of spermatogenesis greater than the duplication type changes. The differential expression of miRNAs in patients with testicular tissue histopathologic differences (SCOS and MA) has a different pattern of miRNA expression due to the type of germ cells they present in epithelial tissue of the testis.

<p>Many of our closest relatives, the primates, are endangered and could be extinct in a near future. To increase the knowledge of non-human primate genomes, and at the same time acquire information on our own genomic evolution, studies using high-throughput technologies are applied, which raises the demand for large amounts of high quality DNA.</p><p>In study I and II, we evaluated the multiple displacement amplification (MDA) technique, a whole genome amplification method, on a wide range of DNA sources, such as blood, hair and semen, by comparing MDA products to genomic DNA as templates for several commonly used genotyping methods. In general, the genotyping success rate from the MDA products was in concordance with the genomic DNA. The quality of sequences of the mitochondrial control region obtained from MDA products from blood and non-invasively collected semen samples was maintained. However, the readable sequence length was shorter for MDA products.</p><p>Few studies have focused on the genetic variation in the nuclear genes of non-human primates. In study III, we discovered 23 new single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the Y-chromosome of the chimpanzee. We designed a tag-microarray minisequencing assay for genotyping the SNPs together with 19 SNPs from the literature and 45 SNPs in the mitochondrial DNA. Using the microarray, we were able to analyze the population structure of wild-living chimpanzees.</p><p>In study IV, we established 111 diagnostic nucleotide positions for primate genera determination. We used sequence alignments of the nuclear epsilon globin gene and apolipoprotein B gene to identify positions for determination on the infraorder and Catarrhini subfamily level, respectively, and sequence alignments of the mitochondrial 12S rRNA (MT-RNR1) to identify positions to distinguish between genera. We designed a microarray assay for immobilized minisequencing primers for genotyping these positions to aid in the forensic determination of an unknown sample.</p>