M.Tech. (Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology), Vaal University of Technology. / The generation of waste tires is one of the most serious environmental problems in the modern world due to the increased use of auto mobiles all over the world. Currently there is a problem with the disposal of waste tires generated since there are strict regulations concerning their disposal through landfill sites. Therefore, there is a need to find ways of disposing these waste tires which pose serious health and environmental problem. The pyrolysis of the waste tires has been recognised as the most promising method to dispose the waste tires because it can reduce the weight of the waste tires to 10% of its original weight and produce products such as pyrolysis oil, pyrolysis char, and pyrolysis char. These products can be further processed to produce value added products. The char produced from the pyrolysis of waste tires can be further activated to produce activated carbon. This study is based on the chemical activation of waste tire pyrolysis char to produce activated carbon for the removal of lead ions from aqueous solution. This was done by impregnating the waste tire pyrolysis char with Potassium hydroxide and activating it inside a tube furnace under inert conditions to produce waste tire activated carbon. Adsorbent characterisation techniques (SEM, FTIR, TGA, XRF, XRD, BET, and Proximate analysis) were performed on the waste tire pyrolysis char and the activated carbon produced to make a comparison between the two samples. The results showed that the waste tire activated carbon produced has better physical and chemical properties compared to the raw waste tire pyrolysis char. Adsorption results revealed that waste tire activated carbon achieves higher removal percentages of lead ions from aqueous solution compared to waste tire pyrolysis char. The results also showed the effect of various process variables on the adsorption process. Adsorption isotherms, kinetics, and thermodynamics were also studied. The adsorption of lead ions agreed with the Freundlich isotherm model for both the waste tire pyrolysis char and waste tire activated carbon. In terms of adsorption kinetics, the experimental data provided best fits for the pseudo-first order kinetic model for both the waste tire pyrolysis char and the waste tire activated carbon. The adsorption thermodynamics study revealed that the process is an exothermic process and spontaneous in nature. Response surface methodology was used to determine the combined effect of process variables on the adsorption of lead ions onto waste tire activated carbon and to optimise the process using numerical optimisation. The optimum conditions were found to be adsorbent dosage = 1g/100ml, pH = 7, contact time = 115.2 min, initial meta concentration = 100 mg/l, and temperature = 25°C to achieve a maximum adsorption capacity of 93.176 mg/l.

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Engineering in Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology. Durban. South Africa, 2015. / Several areas in the world such as the United States of America, Sri Lanka, China, Argentina, Canada, Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa and many others have a problem of high fluoride content in drinking water. Generally fluoride levels above 1.5 ppm in water may result in dental and skeletal fluorosis in humans depending on quantity consumed (Fan et al., 2003; Meenakshi, 2004). Remote rural areas where there are no water treatment facilities are more vulnerable to this problem. Adsorbents such as activated alumina and FR-10 resin seem to have a potential for successful application in rural areas. These methods however require pre-treatment if the feed has high turbidity. A membrane based system called woven fabric microfiltration gravity filter (WFMFGF) developed by Durban University of Technology proved to be suitable for turbidity removal. The main objective of this research was to develop a small water treatment system for fluoride removal. The small water treatment system developed in this study consists of WFMFGF for pre-treatment and an adsorption column. The WFMFGF is made up of a 40 L container packed with 15 immersed flat sheet membrane elements. The operation of the WFMFGF is in batch mode, driven by varying static head. The static head variation results in flow rate variation through the system. This in turn result in variation of contact time, velocity as well as pressure drop in the fluoride removal unit. Specific objectives of the study were: (1) to establish the maximum and minimum flow rates through the WFMFGF system, the total run time before cleaning is required and the best cleaning method for this particular membrane system. (2) to evaluate and compare the performance of activated alumina and FR-10 resin on varying contact time, velocity and pressure drop on the fluoride removal unit. The adsorbents were also compared on adsorption capacity, cost and ease of operation. The minimum and maximum flow rates through the WFMFGF were found to be 5 l/hr and 100 l/hr respectively. It was found that the system can be run for more than a month before requiring cleaning. The suitable cleaning method was found to be soaking the membranes in 0.0225 percent sodium hypochlorite solution overnight and brushing them using a plastic brush. The comparison of the performance of FR-10 resin to activated alumina found that the adsorbents gave equal performance based on the given criteria. FR-10 resin had higher adsorption capacity, gave good quality treated water even with shorter contact time and operated at wider velocity range. Activated alumina on the other hand had an advantage of lower costs, lower pressure drop and ease of use. According to Pontius (1990), the performance of activated alumina can be improved by intermittent operation. Point of use (POU) systems are generally operated intermittently. This improves the fluoride removal efficiency of activated alumina giving it more advantage over FR-10 resin. Based on this activated alumina was selected as the best adsorbent for the system. After the adsorbent was selected, the adsorption column was designed. The column operation regime was 3.5 minutes minimum contact time and 1.17 to 7.8 m/hr velocity range. The activated alumina adsorption capacity was 1.53mg/g. The column had an inside diameter of 70 mm. It was packed with activated alumina to a bed height of 400 mm. The column inlet and outlet pipes were made of PVC with a standard pipe size of 20 mm outside diameter. A valve at the column inlet pipe allowed water to flow through the system.

O fósforo (P) é um elemento essencial para o desenvolvimento das plantas e precisa ser suprido em quantidades adequadas para obtenção de altas produtividades das culturas agrícolas. O conteúdo de P no solo e consequente perda deste para as águas superficiais são importantes fatores relacionados a eutrofização de ambientes aquáticos. Nesse trabalho foi obtido o Grau de saturação de P (GSP) em 29 solos tropicais altamente intemperizados e seus valores foram correlacionados com atributos químicos, físicos e mineralógicos dos solos. Antes de calcular o GSP, foram determinados parâmetros como Índice de sorção de P (ISP), Capacidade de sorção de P (CSP) e fator de escala ?. Os solos foram divididos em grupos, e os solos de cada grupo receberam doses diferenciadas de P para obtenção do ISP devido a variação na capacidade de adsorção,. As doses utilizadas foram 200, 500, 1000, 1500 e 3000 mg L-1 de P. Os períodos de reação avaliados foram 1, 3, 7, 21, 42, e 84 d. A porcentagem média de P adsorvida no final do período de contato (84 d) variou de 23% a 49% do P adicionado inicialmente. Os Latossolos, os Gleissolos e os Nitossolos apresentaram os maiores valores de ISP, enquanto os Argissolos e os Neossolos tiveram os menores valores. Os maiores valores foram encontrados nos solos com elevados teores de argila, matéria orgânica (MO) e óxidos cristalinos e mal cristalizados de Fe e de Al. O ISP foi maior no final do período de contato (84 d), o que realça a influência do tempo na adsorção do P. O fator de escala ? e o GSP foram calculados em todos os períodos de contato. Os valores de ? aumentaram e os de GSP diminuíram em função do tempo devido à maior interação do P com o solo. Os menores valores de GSP foram obtidos nos solos com alta capacidade de adsorção de P, ao passo que os maiores valores de GSP foram dos solos com menor capacidade de adsorção. O maior GSP (31%) foi obtido no Neossolo Litólico. O valor limite de GSP considerado nesse trabalho foi 23%. As relações entre GSP, CSP, ISP e alguns atributos dos solos foram abordadas por meio da análise de componentes principais. Com o agrupamento de todos os solos, os teores de óxido mal cristalizado de alumínio (Alox), argila, MO e de óxido cristalino de alumínio (AlDCB) foram os que melhor se correlacionaram com o ISP e a CSP. Avaliando somente os Latossolos, os teores de argila e de óxidos cristalinos e mal cristalizados de ferro e de alumínio (Feox, FeDCB, AlDCB e Alox) representaram os componentes principais ligados à adsorção de P. Com a adição dos demais solos, os teores de fósforo extraídos por solução ácida de oxalato de amônio (Pox), Alox, argila e MO formaram os componentes principais para ISP e CSP. O GSP não correlacionou significativamente com nenhum dos atributos. A partir do dendograma, os solos foram separados em dois grupos. O grupo I foi composto por solos pouco suscetíveis a perdas de P em função dos valores de CSP e de GSP. Já o grupo II reuniu os solos mais suscetíveis. Equações de regressão linear múltipla foram utilizadas na predição do ISP e CSP e duas delas obtiveram um alto coeficiente de determinação (R2 = 0,94 para ambas), podendo ser utilizadas para estimar a CSP e o ISP nos solos. / Phosphorus (P) is an essential element for plant growth and must be supplied in adequate quantities to the growers obtain high yields of agricultural crops. The content of P in the soil and its loss to surface water are important factors related to eutrophication of aquatic environments. In this study, we obtained the degree of P saturation (DPS) in 29 highly weathered tropical soils, and their values were correlated with chemical, physical and mineralogical soil attributes. Before calculating the DPS, parameters such as P sorption index (PSI), P sorption capacity (PSC) and the scaling factor ? were obtained. Because of the variation in the soils` ability to adsorb P, they were divided into groups, and the soils from each group received different P rates for obtaining the PSI. The rates were 200, 500, 1000, 1500 and 3000 mg L-1 of P. The periods of reaction evaluated were 1, 3, 7, 21, 42, and 84 d. The average percentage of P adsorbed at the end of the contact period (84 d) ranged from 23% to 49% of P added initially. The Oxisols, the Gleysols and the Alfisols showed the highest values of PSI, while the Ultisols and Entisols had the lowest values. The highest values were found in soils with high clay contents of organic matter (OM) and crystalline and poorly crystalline Fe and Al oxides. ISP was higher at the end of the contact period (84 d), which highlights the influence of weathering on P adsorption by soils. The scale factor ? and the DPS were calculated for all periods of contact. The values of ? increased while DPS decreased as a function of time because of the greater interaction of P with the soil. The lowest values of GSP were obtained in soils with high P adsorption capacity, whereas the highest values of DPS were obtained in soils with lower adsorption capacity. The largest DPS (31%) was obtained in the Typic Udorthent. The limit value of DPS considered in this study was 23%. Correlations between DPS, PSC, PSI and some soil attributes were addressed by principal component analysis. By grouping all soils, the levels of poorly crystalline aluminum (Alox), clay, OM and crystalline aluminum oxide (AlDCB) were the atributes best correlated with both PSI and PSC. When evaluating only the Oxisols, it was observed that the contents of clay and crystalline and poorly crystalline iron and aluminum oxides (Feox, FeDCB, AlDCB and Alox) represented the main components related to the adsorption of P. When the other soils were added, the contents of P extracted by an acid ammonium oxalate solution (Pox), Alox, MO and clay composed the main components for PSC and PSI. DPS did not correlate significantly with any of the attributes. From the dendrogram, the soils were separated into two groups: group I, consisted of soils with little susceptiblity to P loss based on the PSC and DPS, and group II, that met the more susceptible soils for P losses. Multiple linear regression equations were used to predict PSI and PSC, and two of them had a high determination coefficient (R2 = 0.94 for both). So, they can be used to estimate the PSC and PSI at the soils.

O fósforo (P) é um elemento essencial para o desenvolvimento das plantas e precisa ser suprido em quantidades adequadas para obtenção de altas produtividades das culturas agrícolas. O conteúdo de P no solo e consequente perda deste para as águas superficiais são importantes fatores relacionados a eutrofização de ambientes aquáticos. Nesse trabalho foi obtido o Grau de saturação de P (GSP) em 29 solos tropicais altamente intemperizados e seus valores foram correlacionados com atributos químicos, físicos e mineralógicos dos solos. Antes de calcular o GSP, foram determinados parâmetros como Índice de sorção de P (ISP), Capacidade de sorção de P (CSP) e fator de escala ?. Os solos foram divididos em grupos, e os solos de cada grupo receberam doses diferenciadas de P para obtenção do ISP devido a variação na capacidade de adsorção,. As doses utilizadas foram 200, 500, 1000, 1500 e 3000 mg L-1 de P. Os períodos de reação avaliados foram 1, 3, 7, 21, 42, e 84 d. A porcentagem média de P adsorvida no final do período de contato (84 d) variou de 23% a 49% do P adicionado inicialmente. Os Latossolos, os Gleissolos e os Nitossolos apresentaram os maiores valores de ISP, enquanto os Argissolos e os Neossolos tiveram os menores valores. Os maiores valores foram encontrados nos solos com elevados teores de argila, matéria orgânica (MO) e óxidos cristalinos e mal cristalizados de Fe e de Al. O ISP foi maior no final do período de contato (84 d), o que realça a influência do tempo na adsorção do P. O fator de escala ? e o GSP foram calculados em todos os períodos de contato. Os valores de ? aumentaram e os de GSP diminuíram em função do tempo devido à maior interação do P com o solo. Os menores valores de GSP foram obtidos nos solos com alta capacidade de adsorção de P, ao passo que os maiores valores de GSP foram dos solos com menor capacidade de adsorção. O maior GSP (31%) foi obtido no Neossolo Litólico. O valor limite de GSP considerado nesse trabalho foi 23%. As relações entre GSP, CSP, ISP e alguns atributos dos solos foram abordadas por meio da análise de componentes principais. Com o agrupamento de todos os solos, os teores de óxido mal cristalizado de alumínio (Alox), argila, MO e de óxido cristalino de alumínio (AlDCB) foram os que melhor se correlacionaram com o ISP e a CSP. Avaliando somente os Latossolos, os teores de argila e de óxidos cristalinos e mal cristalizados de ferro e de alumínio (Feox, FeDCB, AlDCB e Alox) representaram os componentes principais ligados à adsorção de P. Com a adição dos demais solos, os teores de fósforo extraídos por solução ácida de oxalato de amônio (Pox), Alox, argila e MO formaram os componentes principais para ISP e CSP. O GSP não correlacionou significativamente com nenhum dos atributos. A partir do dendograma, os solos foram separados em dois grupos. O grupo I foi composto por solos pouco suscetíveis a perdas de P em função dos valores de CSP e de GSP. Já o grupo II reuniu os solos mais suscetíveis. Equações de regressão linear múltipla foram utilizadas na predição do ISP e CSP e duas delas obtiveram um alto coeficiente de determinação (R2 = 0,94 para ambas), podendo ser utilizadas para estimar a CSP e o ISP nos solos. / Phosphorus (P) is an essential element for plant growth and must be supplied in adequate quantities to the growers obtain high yields of agricultural crops. The content of P in the soil and its loss to surface water are important factors related to eutrophication of aquatic environments. In this study, we obtained the degree of P saturation (DPS) in 29 highly weathered tropical soils, and their values were correlated with chemical, physical and mineralogical soil attributes. Before calculating the DPS, parameters such as P sorption index (PSI), P sorption capacity (PSC) and the scaling factor ? were obtained. Because of the variation in the soils` ability to adsorb P, they were divided into groups, and the soils from each group received different P rates for obtaining the PSI. The rates were 200, 500, 1000, 1500 and 3000 mg L-1 of P. The periods of reaction evaluated were 1, 3, 7, 21, 42, and 84 d. The average percentage of P adsorbed at the end of the contact period (84 d) ranged from 23% to 49% of P added initially. The Oxisols, the Gleysols and the Alfisols showed the highest values of PSI, while the Ultisols and Entisols had the lowest values. The highest values were found in soils with high clay contents of organic matter (OM) and crystalline and poorly crystalline Fe and Al oxides. ISP was higher at the end of the contact period (84 d), which highlights the influence of weathering on P adsorption by soils. The scale factor ? and the DPS were calculated for all periods of contact. The values of ? increased while DPS decreased as a function of time because of the greater interaction of P with the soil. The lowest values of GSP were obtained in soils with high P adsorption capacity, whereas the highest values of DPS were obtained in soils with lower adsorption capacity. The largest DPS (31%) was obtained in the Typic Udorthent. The limit value of DPS considered in this study was 23%. Correlations between DPS, PSC, PSI and some soil attributes were addressed by principal component analysis. By grouping all soils, the levels of poorly crystalline aluminum (Alox), clay, OM and crystalline aluminum oxide (AlDCB) were the atributes best correlated with both PSI and PSC. When evaluating only the Oxisols, it was observed that the contents of clay and crystalline and poorly crystalline iron and aluminum oxides (Feox, FeDCB, AlDCB and Alox) represented the main components related to the adsorption of P. When the other soils were added, the contents of P extracted by an acid ammonium oxalate solution (Pox), Alox, MO and clay composed the main components for PSC and PSI. DPS did not correlate significantly with any of the attributes. From the dendrogram, the soils were separated into two groups: group I, consisted of soils with little susceptiblity to P loss based on the PSC and DPS, and group II, that met the more susceptible soils for P losses. Multiple linear regression equations were used to predict PSI and PSC, and two of them had a high determination coefficient (R2 = 0.94 for both). So, they can be used to estimate the PSC and PSI at the soils.

The effects of system pressure on the performance stability of flow-through capacitive deionization (CDI) cells was investigated. Initial data showed that the highly porous carbon electrodes possessed air/oxygen in the micropores, and the increased system pressure boosts the gases solubility in saline solution and carries them out of the cell in the effluent. Upon applying a potential difference to the electrodes, capacitive-based ion adsorption occurs in competition with faradaic reactions that consume oxygen. Through the addition of backpressure, the rate of degradation decreases, allowing the cell to maintain its salt adsorption capacity (SAC) longer. The removal of oxygen from the pore space of the electrodes makes it no longer immediately accessible to faradaic reactions, thus hindering the rate of reactions and giving the competing ion adsorption an advantage that is progressively seen throughout the life of the cell. A quick calculation shows that the energy penalty to power the pump is fairly insignificant, especially in comparison to the cost of replacing the electrodes in the cell. Thus, operating at elevated pressures is shown to be cost effective for continuous operation through the reduced electrode replenishment costs.

Le biogaz issu de la dégradation anaérobie de matières organiques peut remplacer le gaz naturel dans plusieurs applications. Pour une meilleure valorisation énergétique du biogaz, ce travail s’intéresse à l’élimination des composés organiques volatils du silicium (siloxanes) dans biogaz par l’adsorption sur des matériaux poreux. Trois charbons actifs (CA) commerciaux ont été utilisés pour l’adsorption des siloxanes. Leurs propriétés physicochimiques sont caractérisées par plusieurs techniques. Un CA montre excellent capacité d’adsorption d’octaméthylcyclotétrasiloxane (D4) ce qui est bien supérieur que l’autre. En présence de la vapeur, les capacités d’adsorption des CA peuvent être réduites plus ou moins fort dépendant de dégrée d’humidité relative et la présence des sites hydrophiles sur la surface de CA. Ainsi, la capacité des échantillons possédant ces sites spécifiques est réduite après la thermodésorption à cause de la formation des espèces non volatiles sur la surface de CA. Tests avec d’autres siloxanes ont montré que le phénomène de polymérisation s’est produit avec de réactivité et de mécanisme différent, dépendant de la nature du CA et de siloxane. La polymérisation est toujours plus importante pour le CA qui présent plus de sites hydrophiles, conduisant également à sa plus faible régénérabilité / Biogas issued from the anaerobic digestion of organic materials is a renewable energy source that can replace natural gas in many applications. For a better energy recovery of biogas, this work focuses on the elimination of the volatile organic compounds of silicon (siloxanes) in biogas by the adsorption onto porous materials. Three commercial activated carbons (CA) were used for the adsorption of siloxanes. Their physicochemical properties are characterized by several techniques. Measurement of adsorption capacity of octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4) revealed a CA that works better than the others. In presence of water vapor, the adsorption capacities of all AC can be reduced more or less depending on the degree of relative humidity and the presence of the hydrophilic sites on the surface of AC. Also, D4 adsorption capacity of samples with these specific sites is reduced after thermodesorption due to formation of nonvolatile species on the surface of AC. Tests with other siloxanes showed that the polymerization phenomenon occurred with different reactivity and mechanism, depending on the nature of the CA and siloxane. The polymerization is always more important for the CA which has more hydrophilic sites, thus leading to its lower regenerability

Submitted by Johnny Rodrigues (johnnyrodrigues@ufcg.edu.br) on 2018-03-19T16:27:31Z No. of bitstreams: 1 THIANNE SILVA BATISTA - DISSERTAÇÃO PPGEQ 2016..pdf: 2177027 bytes, checksum: 65931e0e786c26d61bb005c1fd18e0f7 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-03-19T16:27:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 THIANNE SILVA BATISTA - DISSERTAÇÃO PPGEQ 2016..pdf: 2177027 bytes, checksum: 65931e0e786c26d61bb005c1fd18e0f7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-05-25 / Capes / O processo de separação por adsorção destaca-se como uma alternativa para minimizar os problemas de contaminação em recursos hídricos e revela uma abrangente aplicabilidade, devido principalmente à utilização de argilas como adsorventes. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a capacidade de adsorção da argila atapulgita in natura e modificada com o sal quaternário de amônio, como adsorvente de efluentes oleosos sintéticos. Foram realizados planejamentos experimentais fatoriais 22, em que, tiveram como variáveis independentes, a concentração inicial do óleo presente no efluente e tempo de agitação do processo, e como variável resposta o percentual de remoção de óleo. Em seguida, o ensaio de remoção foi avaliado realizando um estudo de viabilidade do processo de adsorção, com a obtenção do mecanismo de adsorção por meio da cinética, como também, com a definição do modelo que descreve o processo de adsorção através da isoterma. Diante as caracterizações realizadas na argila atapulgita foi possível identificar com a Difratometria de raios X (DRX) que sua estrutura não favorece a um deslocamento na intensidade dos picos após o processo de organofilização, porém, com a Espectroscopia na região do infravermelho (FTIR) fica evidenciada a presença dos grupos orgânicos comprovando, assim, a inserção do sal na estrutura da atapulgita; com a Microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) observou-se uma morfologia fibrosa da argila e a Fisissorção de N2 (Método de BET) indicou a presença de estrutura mesoporosa da atapulgita in natura e macroporosa da argila organofílica. Os ensaios de adsorção demonstrou que o processo de organofilização aplicada à atapulgita favoreceu o processo de adsorção, pois desempenhou 67,57% de remoção de óleo e uma capacidade de adsorção de 7,23 mg de óleo por grama de argila, na concentração inicial de 100 mg.L-1 de óleo e no tempo de agitação de 1 hora. Com a aplicação dos modelos teóricos observou-se um coeficiente de determinação R² = 0,98, indicando uma forte correlação da equação de segunda ordem na cinética de adsorção. Para isoterma de adsorção, verificou-se que a equação de Freundlich, Langmuir e da Sigmoide BiDR, ajustaram-se aos dados experimentais. / The process of adsorptive separation stands out as an alternative to minimize contamination problems in water and shows a broad applicability, mainly due to the use of clays as adsorbent. This study aimed to evaluate the adsorption capacity of natural and modified attapulgite clay, using this material as an adsorbent of synthetic oily wastewater. 22 factorial experimental designs were conducted, wherein, the initial concentration of oil present in the effluent and the stirring time were independent variables and the response variable was the oil removal percentage. Then, the removing test was evaluated by performing a feasibility study of the adsorption process, obtaining the adsorption mechanism through kinetics, as well as with the definition of the model which best describes the experimental data through the adsorption isotherm. From the characterizations performed with the attapulgite clay, it was identified with x-ray diffraction (XRD) that its structure does not favor a shift in the intensity of the peaks after the organophilization process, however, the spectroscopy in the infrared (FTIR) demonstrated the presence of the organic groups confirming the insertion of the salt in the attapulgite structure; furthermore, through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), it was observed a fibrous morphology of the clay and N2 physisorption (BET method) indicated the presence of mesoporous structure of natural attapulgite and macroporous of organoclay. Adsorption tests showed that the organophilization applied to attapulgite favored the adsorption process because a 67.57% removal of oil and an adsorption capacity of 7.23 mg of oil per gram of clay were obtained, with the initial concentration of 100 mg.L-1 oil and a stirring time of 1 hour. With the application of theoretical models, a coefficient of determination of R² = 0.98 was reached, indicating a strong correlation of the second-order equation in the adsorption kinetics. For adsorption isotherm, it was found that Freundlich, Langmuir and Sigmoid BIDR equations fitted the experimental data.

In this research, the adsorptive capacities of kenaf in the forms of chopped whole stalk, chopped core, and bast materials were evaluated for the removal of lead, zinc, and toluene from contaminated synthetic waste streams using traditional adsorption isotherm techniques. The effect of surface oxidation using ozone was observed with respect to the adsorption of metals. Hydraulic conductivity experiments were conducted to evaluate the head loss associated with packing a column with kenaf fibers and to determine the suitability of its use in dynamic packed column systems. B.E.T. surface areas were determined as well. Under increasingly stringent regulatory requirements, even low level organic and inorganic contamination (under 100 ppm) in surface and ground waters must be treated. This study is part of an ongoing multi-year research effort aiming to develop a kenaf-based biosorptive process to improve treatment of contaminated aqueous streams at reduced costs and technical complexity.

No description available.

MENVSC / Department of Ecology and Resource Management / Some boreholes in South Africa which serve as a source of drinking water for rural communities are reported to have high fluoride concentration, much above the WHO guideline of 1.5 mg/L. This study aimed at activating aluminosilicate clay soil mechanochemically, modifying aluminosilicate clay soil with Al-oxide and fabricating porous ceramic granules using Al-oxide modified mechanochemically activated aluminosilicate clay soil/ mechanochemically activated clay soil/ corn starch and evaluating their performances in defluoridation of groundwater. The raw clay materials were mechanochemically activated for 5, 10, 15 and 30 minutes for physicochemical transformation of the solid aggregate. The morphology of the samples showed the honeycomb structure. The surface area analyses of samples using Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) gave the highest surface area of 50.5228 m2/g at 30 min activation time. Hence, the optimum activation time was 30 min. The Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) analysis showed increase in the absorbance of FT-IR by Si-O-H groups at 510 cm-1 with increasing milling time. This is evidence that more surface Si-O-H groups were available at higher particle surface area that would be necessary to interact with fluoride. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses revealed that, at 30 minutes milling time, the peak broadening is intensified whereas the reflection peak intensities decreased. The X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) results for 30 minutes milling time showed that silica and alumina were the highest components in the clay soil. Using the activated clay in batch defluoridation of fluoride-spiked water, a maximum fluoride removal of 41% was achieved at a pHe of 2.41. The initial fluoride concentration was 9 mg/L while the sorbent dosage was 0.6 g/100 mL and the contact time being 30 minutes. The adsorption data fitted to both Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. The adsorption data fitted only the pseudo-second-order kinetic, showing chemisorption. Optimization of Al3+ concentration for modification was carried out by modifying the mechanochemical activated aluminosilicate clay soil with different concentrations of Al3+ from which the optimum modification was achieved with 1.5 M. Characterisation studies on the Al-oxide modified mechanochemically activated aluminosilicate clay soil by SEM, BET, FT-IR, XRD and XRF, analyses were carried out to determine the resultant changes in physicochemical properties of the adsorbent owing to modification. The SEM image of Al-oxide modified mechanochemically activated clay soil showed many small pores and honey-comb structure on the surface of different images. The BET surface area and the BDH adsorption cumulative area of the Al-oxide modified mechanochemically activated v aluminosilicate clay soil were more than double those for the raw clay soil. There was also an increase in pore volume of the Al-oxide modified mechanochemically activated aluminosilicate clay soil. The FT-IR spectra showed that there was increase in the absorbance by the Si-OH, H-O-H, Al-O-H and Si-O-Al. The equilibrium pH of solution was higher than the point-of-zero charge (pHpzc) implying that fluoride removal occurred at solution pH > pHpzc where the net surface charge of the mechanochemically activated clay aluminosilicate soil was negative.The efficiency of 1.5 M Al-oxide modified aluminosilicate clay soil to remove fluoride from water was studied and found to be 96.5 % at pHe 6.86, contact time of 30 minutes and dosage of 0.3 g/100 mL for 10 mg/L fluoride solution at 200 rpm shaking speed. The result shows that Al-oxide modified mechanochemically activated aluminosilicate clay soil is effective for defluoridation. The adsorption data fitted to both Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. The adsorption data fitted only the pseudo-second-order kinetic, showing chemisorption. Al-oxide modified mechanochemically activated aluminosilicate clay soil was tested for fluoride removal on field water and the percentage fluoride removal was 96.5 % at the dosage of 0.6 g/100 mL with the pHe of 6.48. The optimum Al-oxide modified mechanochemically activated aluminosilicate clay soil/ mechanochemically activated clay soil/ corn starch mixing ratio for fabrication of porous ceramic granules was determined by varying ratios and temperature. The optimum ratio found was 20:5:1.The porous ceramic granules were characterised using SEM, BET, FT-IR, XRD and XRF. SEM analysis showed that the porous ceramic granules have the porous structure of the organic foam template. The porous ceramic granule showed an increase in pore surface area and volume as compared to mechanochemically activated aluminosilicate clay soil. The FT-IR showed the presence of a strong broad bending and stretching vibrations band at about 993 cm-1 which shows the presence of Si–O–Si bonds. Mineralogical characterisation showed the presence of quartz, albite, horneblende and microcline as the main minerals of the calcined porous ceramic granules. The major oxides of the porous ceramic granules as shown by XRF analysis were SiO2, Al2O3, MnO and Na2O. The porous ceramic granules reduced the concentrations of fluoride in the water from 10 to 3.31 mg/L. The optimum adsorption capacity was 0.6648 mg/g at a pHe of 6.32 and the percentage fluoride removal was 66.9 % at an adsorbent dosage of 1.0063 g/100 mL and a temperature of 600 ⁰C. The porous ceramic granules were tested for fluoride removal on field water and the percentage fluoride removal was 45.4 % at the dosage of 1.0009 g/100 mL with the pHe of 7.87. Mechanochemically activated aluminosilicate clay soil showed higher adsorption capacity at acidic pH, therefore it is recommended that future work should focus on improving their adsorption capacity at wider range of pH. The porous ceramic granules can also be evaluated in column dynamic flow experiments.