En esta tesis se ahonda en el conocimiento que en la actualidad se posee sobre el significado de los adverbios en -mente del español. Se propone un análisis que explica los usos que puede tener un adverbio partiendo de sus propiedades semánticas. Con este fin, se analizan siete subclases de adverbios, de las que se seleccionan 84 unidades, con dos resultados principales: 1) se refinan las descripciones previas sobre el adverbio, que suelen basarse en extrapolaciones del comportamiento de las unidades prototípicas; y 2) se reconocen los rasgos semánticos característicos de cada grupo adverbial que explican el comportamiento de sus miembros. La principal novedad radica en que se analiza la vinculación entre la semántica adjetiva y la adverbial; en concreto, se examina la herencia por parte de los adverbios de la estructura argumental de sus bases adjetivas, así como el modo en que esta estructura argumental determina el uso adverbial. / This thesis is an in-depth study of the semantics of -mente adverbs in Spanish. With the goal of explaining the distribution of these adverbs on the basis of their semantic characteristics, 84 adverbs from seven subclasses were analysed, with two important results: 1) a refinement of the existing descriptions of these adverbs, largely thanks to the consideration of a wider array of data; and 2) a description of the semantic features that characterize each of the seven subclasses and predict their behavior. In particular, we get a clear picture of the relationship between the semantics of the base adjectives and the resulting adverbs, including aspects of meaning such as the inheritance of the argument structure of the adjectives by the corresponding adverbs, and the role argument structure plays in determining the adverbs' uses.

abstract: The historical study of sentence adverbs has, before now, been based mostly on models that emphasize the pragmatic and discourse-based motivations of processes of grammaticalization. This dissertation breaks from such tradition by exploring diachronic adverb development through syntactic and morphological lenses. A generative, feature-based approach is used that incorporates the cartographic architecture developed by Cinque and combines it with a more phenomenological approach to both grammaticalization and lexicalization. Cinque's hierarchy of speech-act, evaluative, evidential, and epistemic adverbs is analyzed. It is determined (through corpus data) that these subcategories have grown in use primarily during the Modern English era, and particularly during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. These four subcategories can be divided into two groups that are more general: speech-act adverbs, which arise from a (conditional) speech-act clause that undergoes ellipsis, and the other three types, which all arise from copula clauses. Each of these two groups is considered, and different methods of reanalysis by speakers are proposed for each. In addition, a revised model for categorizing adverbs is proposed. This model is based on morphological lexicalization (or univerbation) processes, thus accounting for the wide variety of adverbial source materials. Such lexicalization offers a pattern for sentence adverbial formation. Finally, Standard Chinese adverbials are briefly examined, with results indicating that they show very similar signs of lexicalization (within the limits of the writing system). / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. English 2011

M.A. (African Languages) / Rank and category shifting are two language-dynamic processes of syntactic origin, wherein form words or word groups are used outside their usual and original syntactic functions and gradually shift their ranks as well as categories. This shifting leads to the development of new word forms with their own characteristics different from the original ones.

This study investigates variable positioning of adverbs in compound verb tenses in vernacular Quebec French using the sociolinguistic framework of Variation Theory (Weinreich et al. 1968; Labov 1969). While variable adverb placement is addressed in both the prescriptive and linguistic literature, whether their explanations for it hold in practice remains to be determined; quantitative research of this phenomenon in usage-based corpora is limited, and rare in French. The research objectives are therefore to determine the productivity of variable adverb placement in French in these verbal contexts, to uncover the linguistic and/or social factors which constrain it, and to evaluate the extent to which current treatments of this variable in the literature accurately reflect what occurs in speech. Data is thus extracted from a corpus of spontaneous discourse, is coded for several linguistic and social factors, and is quantitatively analysed using standard variationist methodology (Poplack & Tagliamonte 2001). Overall rates of variant use suggest that variable adverb placement is robust, with adverbs occurring just slightly more frequently after the past participle than between the auxiliary and the participle; placement at the beginning of the sentence is rare. The results of the distributional and multivariate analyses largely confirm the purported conditioning effects of the tested linguistic factors, suggesting that prescriptive and theoretical linguistic approaches are generally correct in their accounts of this phenomenon. However, closer investigation reveals these effects to be sensitive to the lexical identity of the adverb, namely, their particular placement preferences; once these positioning predilections are taken into consideration, the conditioning effects of the linguistic factors essentially disappear. Sociodemographic factors are also found to be mildly implicated in variable adverb placement, and these too are sensitive to the influence of the lexical identity of the adverb. Ultimately, it is argued that this variable is primarily lexically-constrained, a finding which can be only minimally and indirectly inferred from the relevant literature. Taken together, the results of this study provide new and vital insight into the mechanisms underlying variable adverb placement in French, and also highlight the importance of quantitatively investigating such variable language phenomena in corpora of vernacular speech.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study provides a description of Afrikaans adverbs within the framework of proposals set out by Cinque (1999). Previous analyses of adverbs in Afrikaans have generally been done within a non-generative framework (e.g. Oosthuizen 1964, Theron 1964). The aim of the study is to determine whether Cinque’s functional head-based theory provides an adequate framework for the analysis of adverbs in Afrikaans. The main focus is therefore on the functional aspect of adverbs. However, alternative theoretical frameworks, namely those of Ernst (2002), Tenny (2000), and Holmer (2012), are also briefly described. The study is presented with the broad theoretical framework of Minimalist Syntax. Cinque’s research procedure is outlined, starting with his analysis of adverbs in Romance languages and then as it is extended cross-linguistically. Here the focus is especially on the conclusions that Cinque draws with regard to the relative order of adverb types, and that of clausal functional heads. Adverbs in Afrikaans are subsequently analysed in the light of Cinque’s findings. The main question addressed in this study, namely whether Cinque’s hierarchies of adverb and funcional category orders can be successfully applied to Afrikaans, is answered in the affirmative. Despite limitations in the diagnostic procedure, Afrikaans adverb and functional head orders seem to comply with Cinque’s proposed hierarchies. That the facts of Afrikaans adverbs seem to comply with Cinque’s functional theory regarding adverbs, provides support for his proposed framework and also provides further credence to his claims about a universal, cross-linguistic hierarchy of adverb-functional head order. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie bied ’n beskrywig van Afrikaanse bywoorde binne die raamwerk van voorstelle van Cinque (1999). Vorige analises van Afrikaanse bywoorde is grotendeels binne ’n nie-generatiewe raamwerk gedoen (bv. Oosthuizen 1964, Theron 1964). Die doel van die studie is om vas te stel of Cinque se funksionele hoof-gebaseerde teorie ’n toereikende raamwerk bied vir die analise van Afrikaanse bywoorde. Die klem val dus op die funksionele aspek van bywoorde. Alternatiewe teoretiese raamwerke, naamlik die van Ernst (2002), Tenny (2000) en Holmer (2012) word egter ook kortliks beskryf. Die studie word aangebied binne die breë teoretiese raamwerk van Minimalistiese Sintaksis. Cinque se navorsingsprosedure, beginnende met sy analise van bywoorde in Romaanse tale, en daarna soos uitgebrei na tale van ander families, word beskryf. Hierin is die fokus veral op die gevolgtrekkings waartoe Cinque kom rakende die relatiewe volgorde van bywoord-tipes en van funksionele hoofde in sinsverband. Afrikaanse bywoorde word dan in die lig van Cinque se bevindinge geanaliseer. Die hoofvraag wat in die studie aangespreek word, naamlik of Cinque se hierargieë van bywoord- en funksionele hoof-volgordes suksesvol toegepas kan word in Afrikaans, word positief beantwoord. Ondanks beperkings in die toetsingsprosedure, blyk dit dat die volgorde van bywoorde en funksionele hoofde in Afrikaans wel met Cinque se voorgestelde hierargieë ooreenstem. Die bevinding dat die feite van Afrikaans klop met die bewerings van Cinque se funksionele teorie van bywoorde, bied ondersteuning vir die oënskynlike toereikendheid van sy voorgestelde raamwerk, en verskaf verdere geloofwaardig-heid aan sy voorstel van ’n universele hiërargie van bywoord-funksionele hoof- volgorde, oor verskillende tale heen.

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo sobre a mudança gramatical que tem afetado a palavra afinal. Para isso, iniciamos nossas buscas em dicionários sincrônicos e etimológicos, que favoreceram reconhecer a ampliação do espectro funcional desse item; em seguida, coletamos dados da língua falada e, em face do pouco número de ocorrências, partimos para dados da língua escrita. Norteados pela fundamentação teórica que deriva de Heine, Claudi & Hünnemeyer (1991), reconhecemos um percurso unidirecional seguido pelo item afinal, bem como pudemos reconhecer alguns padrões funcionais associados aos usos desse item. Também, verificamos que as rotas percorridas pelo encadeamento dos padrões funcionais podem assumir um movimento tanto da esquerda para a direita - resultando em gramaticalização; quanto da direita para a esquerda resultando em lexicalização. / This research presents a study on the grammatical change that has been affecting the word \"afinal\". For this we initiate our searches in synchronous and etymologic dictionaries; that has promoted to recognize the enlargement of the functional spectrum of this item. After that, we collected data from the spoken language and, in face of the scarce number of occurrences; we decided to deal with the written language. Guided by the theoretical basis that derives from Heine, Claudi & Hünnemeyer (1991), we recognize a unidirectional way, followed by the item \"AFINAL\", as well as we could recognize some functional standards associated to the use of this item. We also, verify that the routes covered by the functional standards chaining may assume a movement from the left to the right - resulting in grammaticalization, and also from the right for the left, resulting in lexicalization.

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo sobre a mudança gramatical que tem afetado a palavra afinal. Para isso, iniciamos nossas buscas em dicionários sincrônicos e etimológicos, que favoreceram reconhecer a ampliação do espectro funcional desse item; em seguida, coletamos dados da língua falada e, em face do pouco número de ocorrências, partimos para dados da língua escrita. Norteados pela fundamentação teórica que deriva de Heine, Claudi & Hünnemeyer (1991), reconhecemos um percurso unidirecional seguido pelo item afinal, bem como pudemos reconhecer alguns padrões funcionais associados aos usos desse item. Também, verificamos que as rotas percorridas pelo encadeamento dos padrões funcionais podem assumir um movimento tanto da esquerda para a direita - resultando em gramaticalização; quanto da direita para a esquerda resultando em lexicalização. / This research presents a study on the grammatical change that has been affecting the word \"afinal\". For this we initiate our searches in synchronous and etymologic dictionaries; that has promoted to recognize the enlargement of the functional spectrum of this item. After that, we collected data from the spoken language and, in face of the scarce number of occurrences; we decided to deal with the written language. Guided by the theoretical basis that derives from Heine, Claudi & Hünnemeyer (1991), we recognize a unidirectional way, followed by the item \"AFINAL\", as well as we could recognize some functional standards associated to the use of this item. We also, verify that the routes covered by the functional standards chaining may assume a movement from the left to the right - resulting in grammaticalization, and also from the right for the left, resulting in lexicalization.

The word zenzen is an adverb that is used frequently in daily conversational Japanese. From the Meiji period (1868-1912) until the early Showa period (1924-1989) the word was used together with both affirmative and negative words to form expressions. In the early Showa period the grammatical rules in education changed so that the only acceptable use was together with a negative word. From the 1990’s onward, the use together with an affirmative word has made a comeback especially among younger Japanese people. However even though the usage together with an affirmative word has made a comeback and was considered normal once in history, in today’s society it is still considered as slang and thus not recommended usage in formal situations. Foreign language learners however, tend not to learn a language only by textbooks but also by imitating the language of native Japanese speakers and Japanese popular culture. This may lead to a confusion regarding what words are acceptable to use in conversations. Therefore in this study, an online survey that examines the usage and attitudes regarding the word zenzen aimed at Japanese language learners at Swedish universities was conducted. The results of the survey showed that although a majority of the learners showed a good understanding of the usage, more than half of the learners displayed a feeling of confusion regarding the usage of the word. The gender comparison regarding the usage showed no major differences. Having lived in Japan, having Japanese friends whom you speak Japanese with regularly and length of Japanese study was associated with an increased understanding of the usage. Regular consumption of Japanese popular culture, however, was not associated with an increased understanding of the usage. A literature analysis was also conducted to examine the attitudes regarding the usage of zenzen in a variety of books with topics including business language and books aimed at Japanese language teachers. The results showed that zenzen used together with a negative word was considered as the norm while zenzen used together with an affirmative word was not recommended to be used in formal situations. When recommending proper usage of the word zenzen together with an affirmative word to foreign learners of Japanese, hijou-ni and totemo was seen as better alternatives to zenzen in a formal situation.

published_or_final_version / Linguistics / Master / Master of Philosophy

Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka två fantasyromaners användning av personbeskrivande adjektiv och adverb utifrån ett genusperspektiv. Materialet är David Eddings (1997) bok Stenens väktare och Christopher Paolinis (2006) bok Eragon.                Metoden är en kvalitativ närläsning utifrån ett genusperspektiv av dessa två verks första 100 sidor. I materialet analyseras åtta karaktärer för att urskilja vilka adjektiv och adverb som beskriver de kvinnliga respektive manliga karaktärerna. Analysen går över till en kvantitativ och kvalitativ undersökning, då de utvalda adjektiven och adverben sätts in i tabeller och räknas ut i procent som sedan tolkas. Resultatet visar att det finns skillnader i valet av de personbeskrivande adjektiven och adverben mellan de manliga och kvinnliga karaktärerna. Vilket är förväntat, men det finns även likheter som antyder på en samhällsutveckling, en utveckling i riktning mot mer jämställt. Brytningen av genusstereotyper skapar likheter mellan de manliga och kvinnliga karaktärerna, kvinnorna tillåts vara lika aggressiva som män och männen får vara mildare. Karaktärerna får beskrivas med samma adjektiv och adverb.