This dissertation considers two of the most pressing concerns of the current time, income inequality and exposure to pollution, and provides evidence that these two concerns may in fact be causally linked. In order to do this, I assemble novel datasets on income inequality and pollution exposure, and propose an strategy for causally identifying the effect of the former on the latter. In the first substantive chapter, I develop a new dataset on income inequality measured at the US state and metropolitan area level. I compare the trends in income inequality measured using different income definitions. In general, pre-tax, pre-transfer income inequality has increased in most states since 1980, but post-fiscal income inequality has seen slow or no growth since about 2000. I conduct inference on how income inequality has changed using a semi-parametric bootstrap method, and consider potential correlates with state-level income inequality. I find that de-unionization is perhaps the most important factor driving rising inequality. In the second substantive chapter, I leverage satellite-derived remote sensing data on ground-level concentrations for two important pollutants (NOx and PM2.5) to measure the distribution of pollution exposure. I propose a dashboard approach to measuring environmental inequality and environmental justice, proposing and applying several candidate measures to the satellite datasets. I find that environmental inequality has largely decreased since 1998, as has average exposure. I consider potential correlations between neighborhood demographics and the distribution of exposure, but find inconclusive results. In the third substantive chapter, I attempt to resolve this ambiguity by considering whether rising income inequality within metropolitan areas (the subject of the first chapter) might causally affect the distribution of exposure across people (the subject of the second). Using a simulated instrumental variables identification strategy designed to address potential endogeneity due to locational sorting, I find that income inequality decreases the average level of exposure, but increases environmental inequality. I argue this is consistent with the benefits of pollution reduction accruing to the most advantaged, and provide evidence that this may work through the political system: inequality increases the responsiveness of politicians to the environmental demands of the rich.

Ambient air pollution, including airborne particulate matter (PM) derived from combustion of fossil fuels (FF) or biomass (BM), has detrimental inflammatory effects on human health. Myeloid antigen presenting cells, including dendritic cells (DCs) regulate immune responses in the airway and sample inhaled PM. This study tests the hypothesis that PM interacts with multiple environmental sensing pathways in DCs with outcomes that depend on particle size and composition as determined by combustion source. The effects of different sized PM (< 10μm, PM10; < 2.5μm, PM2.5), derived from the combustion of FF or BM, on human monocyte-derived or ex vivo sputum DCs, were examined. DC activation status, cytokine production and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) signalling were assessed by flow-cytometry, multiplex ELISA and qRT-PCR, following exposure to PM. Pathway-specific antagonists were used to explore underlying mechanisms. Particle size and combustion source influenced the effects of PM on DCs. Irrespective of combustion source, PM10 but not PM2.5, induced MoDC maturation and stimulated production of inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β and IL-18, indicative of inflammasome activation. These responses were dependent, at least in part, on TLR4 as was the induction of IDO by PM10. AhR signalling was induced by PM in both MoDC and ex vivo sputum DC. It was stimulated by both PM10 and PM2.5 and was induced more strongly by BM-derived PM. AhR activation was independent of DC maturation and TLR4 signalling. Additionally, BM- but not FF-derived PM increased NADH levels in DC suggestive of altered metabolism. Thus, PM induces a complex programme of DC activation, influenced by size and combustion source, which includes classical maturation, inflammasome dependent cytokine release and AhR signalling as well as potential metabolic changes. In the airway, exposure to different PM and the changes in DCs induced by them may lead to altered responses to inhaled antigen.

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Approximately 3 billion people in developing countries rely on solid fuels for their cooking, heating and lighting needs (Smith 2000). Household air pollution (HAP) from the incomplete combustion of these fuels constitutes the fourth leading risk factor for death and morbidity worldwide, and the number one risk factor for disease burden in some developing nations, including Ghana (Lim et al. 2013; Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation 2016). While research shows biomass fuel combustion presents a significant global health and environmental burden, no regional, national or global policies have been enacted to reduce fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC) emissions from cooking with biomass fuels. More data on personal exposures to particulate matter and BC from cooking with biomass are needed across geographic areas to assess whether exposure is mediated by (cultural) cooking customs, practices and behaviors. These data are critical in informing improved cookstove design as well as policies aimed at reducing harmful emissions and exposures from biomass smoke. The overall objective of this proposal is to examine personal exposures to cooking and non-cooking sources of HAP, characterize the elemental composition of the fine particulate matter across two common biomass fuels (charcoal and wood), and assess acute respiratory symptoms in pregnant women cooking with biomass fuels in rural Ghana. Through aerosol monitoring of PM2.5, our goal is to identify and apportion sources of personal exposures borne by cooks in rural Ghana, in order to inform mitigation policies and intervention design to alleviate health burden associated with cooking with biomass fuels. Specifically, in Aim 1 we propose to measure personal exposures and kitchen air concentrations of PM2.5 and BC across cooking locations, (i.e. enclosed, semi-enclosed, outdoor) and assess cooking characteristics (e.g. fuel, kitchen type, ethnicity) as possible determinants of exposure. In Aim 2, we will characterize the elemental composition of personal and kitchen air samples across fuel and kitchen types. These two aims will allow us to assess cooking and non-cooking sources of personal HAP exposure based on air monitoring data, composition of the filters, and survey-based cooking characteristics/demographics. In Aim 3, we propose to characterize the prevalence of adult respiratory symptoms in 1183 pregnant women in the region, and assess associations between personal exposure, measured by personal carbon monoxide (CO), and other cooking and non-cooking determinants of personal exposure, including fuel type, years cooked, kerosene lamp, mosquito coils, and charcoal production.

Ozone dry deposition, an important tropospheric ozone sink, is expected to evolve with climate and land use, but coarse representation of ozone dry deposition in most large-scale atmospheric chemistry models hinders understanding of the influence of this sink on ozone air quality. Ozone uptake by stomata, injurious to plants, has been emphasized in the atmospheric chemistry community as the predominant terrestrial ozone depositional sink. However, there is an abundance of observational evidence from monitoring sites around the world suggesting that nonstomatal deposition processes (e.g., surface-mediated aqueous reactions on leaf cuticles, reactions with soil organic matter) are important ozone sinks. With observations from one of the longest ozone eddy covariance datasets available and a model hierarchy, I find substantial variations in nonstomatal ozone dry deposition, which is a non-negligible amount of the total ozone dry deposition, and identify the individual deposition processes driving observed variability. I pinpoint the responses of ozone pollution to changes in precursor emissions, climate, and ozone dry deposition at the beginning and end of the 21st century using a new version of the NOAA GFDL chemistry-climate model that more explicitly resolves deposition processes by leveraging the interactive biophysics of the land component of the model. My work highlights that under strong precursor emission controls there is a shift in the high ozone pollution season over northern mid-latitudes to a wintertime peak, and that wintertime ozone is sensitive to ozone dry deposition due to the long ozone lifetime. For both summer and winter, I find that neglecting variations in nonstomatal deposition and dependencies on environmental conditions may hinder accurate identification of the processes driving observed trends and variability in ozone pollution. In light of the sensitivity of ozone to dry deposition during winter, I identify a need for developing observational constraints on the wintertime depositional sink.

Este estudo teve como finalidade levantar dados para uma avaliação das alternativas tecnológicas (cultivos de microalgas e reflorestamento) para a biofixação de CO2 da atmosfera próxima à usina termelétrica; tendo sido utilizada como referência a Usina Barbosa Lima Sobrinho. Já existe um projeto de avaliação do efeito do reflorestamento na fixação do CO2 nesta usina e, neste trabalho, foi avaliada a alternativa do cultivo de microalgas. Uma pesquisa inicial foi feita na literatura para verificar qual a espécie de microalga seria a mais adequada para ser utilizada no estudo, tendo sido a espécie Chlorella sp. a selecionada. Posteriormente os sistemas de cultivo de microalgas mais comumente empregados no mercado foram levantados e foi selecionado o cultivo em tanques abertos como referência para a modelagem do processo. Utilizando os dados da termelétrica e da literatura foi possível estimar a quantidade de CO2 que será retirada da atmosfera caso um sistema de cultivo seja efetivamente instalado na usina termelétrica. Uma análise econômica foi realizada para determinar a viabilidade do projeto. Os resultados indicam que a utilização deste tipo de tecnologia é promissora / This study aimed to collect data for an evaluation of alternative technologies (microalgae cultivations and reforestation) for biofixation of CO2 from the atmosphere near a power plant, named Barbosa Lima Sobrinho, which uses natural gas and diesel as fuels. There is a project to assess the effect of reforestation for CO2 fixation in this facility and, in this study, we evaluated the alternative of cultivating microalgae. An initial review was done in the literature to determine what species of microalgae would be most suitable to use and Chlorella sp was selected. Thereafter cultivation of microalgae media, commonly employed in the market, were evaluated and the culture selected was in open tanks as a reference for the modeling process. Using data from the thermoelectric and the literature it was possible to estimate the amount of CO2 that will be capture from the atmosphere if a microalgae farming will be installed in thermal power plant area. An economic analysis was performed to determine the feasibility of the project. The results indicate that the use of this technology is promising

É feita a análise da evolução de provas funcionais ventilatórias de dois grupos de crianças clinicamente sadias, residentes no Município de Cubatão, examinadas inicialmente em dois estudos transversais realizados respectivamente em 1983 (verão) e em 1985 (inverno). O princípio epidemiológico que norteou essa pesquisa foi a realização de um estudo de Coorte Não-Controlada, ou mais apropriadamente, um Estudo Ecológico Longitudinal, onde esses dois grupos de crianças foram anualmente submetidos a exames espirométricos no período de 1987 a 1989, mantida a estrita sazonalidade, ou seja, o Grupo de 1983 foi sempre reexaminado no verão, enquanto que o Grupo de 1985 sempre no inverno. Aproximadamente 1.110 crianças, oriundas de todas as áreas do Município foram submetidas a provas de função pulmonar utilizando-se espirômetro seco, com especial ênfase na análise do comportamento da Capacidade Vital Forçada (CVF), do Volume Expiratório Forçado no Primeiro Segundo (VEF1,0), do \"Peak-Flow\" ou Pico de Fluxo Expiratório (PFE), e do Fluxo Médio Expiratório Forçado (FMF25-75 por cento ), todos considerados como indicadores sensíveis às influências dos níveis de poluição atmosférica registrados em Cubatão. As informações concernentes à poluição do ar foram obtidas através dos relatórios de pesquisas efetuadas pela Companhia de Tecnologia de Saneamento Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo (CETESB) e envolveram a análise das estimativas de emissões das indústrias prioritárias de Cubatão, das concentrações horárias de material particulado (MP), dióxido de enxofre (SO2) e do ozona (O3) registradss nas estações amostradoras de Vila Parisi, Cubatão-Centro e Vila Nova no período de Novembro de 1983 a Dezembro de 1989. Também integrou o contexto de análise, a avaliação das principais metas do Programa de Controle de Poluição do Ar instituído pela CETESB na região a partir de 1984, com o objetivo de se verificar se as reduções pretendidas nos níveis de poluição do ar se fizeram acompanhar de melhorias nas provas funcionais pulmonares das crianças estudadas. Verificou-se que os episódios agudos de poluição do ar, principalmente devidos ao material particulado, mostraram algum decréscimo. No entanto, aqueles devidos a oxidantes fotoquímicos, representados pelos níveis de ozona, tiveram progressivo incremento no período de 1984 a 1988, tanto em relação ao número de episódios, como na persistência e gravidade dos mesmos. Os resultados espirométricos indicaram que em ambos os grupos de crianças a função pulmonar mostrou decrementos significativos, com perdas em tomo de 5 a 8 por cento ao ano, em média, quando comparados com os valores inicialmente registrados por ocasião dos estudos transversais. Apesar das reduções terem sido observadas em todas as variáveis espirométricas, os maiores decrementos verificaram-se principalmente nas medidas de fluxo (PFE e FMF25_75 por cento ), e coincidiram com o ano em que foram assinalados os mais graves episódios de poluição devida a oxidantes fotoquímicos. Os bairros Cota 95, Cota 200, Jardim das Indústrias e Vila Natal, localizados na área de influência do núcleo industrial químicofpetroquímico sobressairam-se como os mais críticos em função dos piores resultados espirométricos apresentados ao longo de todo o estudo. Pôde-se concluir que apesar da função pulmonar das crianças ainda não ter atingido níveis considerados como patológicos, mesmo registrando valores inferiores aos limites da normalidade nas variáveis de fluxo no ano de 1988, verificou-se que de ano para ano a função pulmonar vem decrescendo progressivamente indicando que esta vai sendo afetada pela exposição as poluentes da região e que as medidas de controle da poluição instituídas em Cubatão não tiveram a eficácia esperada. Continuando nessa mesma trajetória evolutiva, isso poderá acarretar sérios e irreparáveis prejuízos à saúde da população. É necessário, portanto, a adoção de urgentes medidas para a melhoria da qualidade do ar em Cubatão nos anos futuros, no intuito de prevenir sérios agravos à Saúde Pública. / The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of exposure to air pollution on lung function of children. Two groups of clinically healthy children, living at different areas of the city of Cubatão, who had been submitted to lung function tests in a previous cross-sectional study (1983 summertime and 1985 wintertime) were annually reexamined using the same type of test during the period 1987 to 1989. On epidemiological basis this is a longitudinal study, where every individual of the two groups of children was measured at each ocasion, always in the same season of the previous examination. About 1,110 children from all areas of the city were examined once a year using dry spirometer, with special emphasis on FVC, FEV 1,0, PEF and FMF25-75 per cent measurements, since they were considered as those which could be most affected by the local air pollution. Information regarding the conditions of air pollution were obtained from the CETESB\'s written reports. They include the estimate emissions of the main industries of the region; the hourly concentrations of particulate matter, sulfur dioxide and ozone measured in the sampling stations located in Vila Parisi, Cubatão-Centro and Vila Nova during the October/1983 to December/1989 period and also the results of the Source Control Strategy introduced by CETESB since 1984. It was observed that the acute episodes of air pollution due to PM were reduced in number. However, those due to photochemicaf oxidants, mainly represented by ozone leveis, were progressively more frequent during the period from 1984 to 1988; both their number and their severity increased during this period. Spirometric results shows that in both groups of children the lung function was significantly impaired, with losses of 5 to 8 per cent per year, when compared with the initial values of the cross-sectional studies. Despite the fact that all lung function parameters decline, the flow (PFE and FMF2s-7s per cent ) values were those most affected and closely related to the most serious episodes of air pollution due to photochemical oxidants mainly those observed in 1988. Children living in the areas of Cota 95, Cota 200, Jardim das Indústrias and Vila Natal, situated in the nearest area of influence of the chemical and petrochemical industries, presented worst spirometric results than children living in other places of Cubatão. The lung function of the examined children did not attain pathological values, despite the fact of presenting the worst results in flow parameters during the year of 1988. It was observed that their lung function is progressively impaired year by year, a clear indication of the progressive effects of air pollution on their lung function, and if such impairment continues there will carne the time when lung function will probably reach a pathologicallevel. It is concluded that there is an urgent need of improving the quality of air of Cubatão to avoid serious Public Health problems in a quite near future.

Introdução: Atribui-se à poluição atmosférica aproximadamente 800 mil mortes prematuras anualmente ao redor do mundo, sendo que diversos estudos têm mostrado que mesmo quando as emissões dos poluentes estiveram em conformidade com os padrões estabelecidos, mudanças dos níveis de poluição em curtos períodos, sazonalmente, ou em longo prazo produziram efeitos nocivos sobre a saúde das populações expostas. Dentre estas populações, idosos e crianças foram os mais sensíveis a esses efeitos. Vitória é uma cidade industrial que tem enfrentado um aumento da sua frota automotiva e, conseqüentemente, um aumento das concentrações dos poluentes atmosféricos. O presente trabalho comparou a prevalência de sintomas respiratórios em escolares expostos predominantemente aos poluentes atmosféricos emitidos por indústrias e por veículos automotores. Casuística e Métodos: Estudo transversal, exploratório, em uma amostra de 350 crianças em duas escolas localizadas em áreas com diferentes fontes predominantes de poluição atmosférica (industrial e automotiva). As fontes predominantes de poluição atmosférica em cada área foram identificadas através da análise de componentes principais, tendo como base os componentes químicos identificados em folhas de Tradescantia pallida expostas através da técnica de fluorescência de Raio-X. Foi aplicado o questionário International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) para investigar os sintomas respiratórios. Outros sintomas e condições de moradia foram avaliados através de um questionário complementar. A associação entre a freqüência dos sintomas entre as áreas foi investigada através do teste de Qui-quadrado. Modelos de regressão logística foram usados para os cálculos das razões de chances prevalentes (OR). Resultados: Não houve associação significativa nas prevalências dos sintomas pesquisados entre as áreas investigadas. Em relação às morbidades referidas, rinite mostrou uma associação significativa com local de moradia próxima à área industrial, OR= 2 (IC95%: 1,1; 3,7). Embora não tenham sido encontradas associações, asma, tosse e coriza também foram mais freqüentes nas crianças moradoras na área industrial. Conclusão: Os resultados encontrados na cidade de Vitória sugerem que o risco de exposição às emissões industriais pode ser maior que o da emissão por fontes automotivas / Introduction: Almost 800 thousand premature deaths have been attributed to the air pollution around the world, and several studies have showed that even when the established patterns for pollutants emissions were achieved, short and seasonal changes in the pollutant levels, or long term changes may lead to a different harmful health effects on the exposed population. The elderly and children have been identified the most susceptible groups in terms of air pollution health effects. Vitória is a seaboard Brazilian industrial city, which has faced an increase in the automotive fleet in the last decade, and, consequently, air pollution levels. Casuistic and methods: This study compared the prevalence of respiratory symptoms in school children exposed, mainly, to industrial or automotive sources. We carried out a cross sectional study with 350 children of two schools located in different areas. The main source of air pollution in each area was assessed by factor analysis based on components identified in Tradescantia pallid leafs through fluorescence x-ray technique. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) questionnaire was applied to investigate respiratory symptoms. Referred respiratory morbidity was also investigated. Associations between areas and frequency of symptoms were tested with the chi-square test. Logistic regression models were used to calculate the prevalent odds ratio (OR) of the main respiratory symptoms. Results: There was no significant association between area and prevalence of respiratory symptoms. In terms of referred disease, rhinitis was associated with living in the industrial area, OR= 2 (CI95%:1.1; 3.7). Although without significant statistical association, asthma, cough and flue were also more frequent among those living in the industrial area. Conclusion: Despite the increase of automotive contribution to the pool of air pollutants in the city of Vitória, our results suggest that, in this specific situation, being exposed to industrial emissions may be more hazardous than being exposed to automotive emissions

A poluição atmosférica tem sido tema frequente de pesquisas, devido aos efeitos que podem afetar a saúde dos seres vivos, o meio ambiente e clima. A fim de identificar as fontes de emissão dos poluentes e de seus efeitos, o método de biomonitoramento vem sendo estudado devido ao seu baixo custo e a possibilidade de amostragem em amplas áreas geográficas. Neste trabalho, para biomonitoramento passivo da poluição atmosférica no campus da Cidade Universitária Armando Salles de Oliveira (CUASO) da Universidade de São Paulo, foi utilizado líquen epifítico da espécie Canoparmelia texana. Os liquens coletados em troncos de árvores de diferentes pontos da CUASO foram limpos, secos por liofilização e moídos para análise pelos métodos de espectrometria de fluorescência de raios X (XRFS) e análise por ativação neutrônica (NAA). Na XRFS as amostras preparadas na forma de pastilhas foram analisadas para determinação de As, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Rb, S, Sr e Zn. Na NAA, alíquotas de amostras de liquens juntamente com padrões sintéticos de elementos foram irradiados no reator IEA-R1 e as atividades induzidas medidas em espectrômetro de raios gama para determinação de As, Br, Ca, Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, K, La, Mg, Mn, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, U, V e Zn. A qualidade dos resultados analíticos foi avaliada pela análise de materiais de referência certificados. Seus resultados de desvios padrão relativos e de erros relativos foram inferiores a 15 % para a maioria dos elementos. Os valores de diferença padronizada ou En score obtidos foram inferiores a |1| indicando resultados satisfatórios. A homogeneidade da amostra de líquen foi avaliada tanto pela NAA como pela XRFS por meio das análises em replicatas e estes resultados indicaram a boa reprodutibilidade dos resultados em relação aos elementos determinados. Os resultados dos liquens da CUASO mostraram que as concentrações médias de As, Br, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Rb, Sb, Se e U foram mais altas do que daquelas das regiões consideradas não poluídas e para Fe, K, La, S, V e Zn foram da mesma ordem de grandeza. O estudo da correlação entre os elementos apresentou alta correlação (r > 0,7) para elementos originários de fontes naturais e antrópicas. A análise de componentes principais (PCA) aplicada aos resultados teve seis componentes principais, onde os componentes 1 e 2 corresponderam a 52,9 % da variância dos dados. Os resultados dos fatores de enriquecimento (FE) calculados entre os liquens da CUASO e de uma região considerada limpa foram maiores que 1 para maioria dos elementos, indicando que estes elementos podem ser de fontes antrópicas. Pelos resultados obtidos concluise que a origem dos elementos determinados nos liquens da CUASO pode ser atribuída a fontes como a resuspensão de partículas de solo e emissões antrópicas. / Air pollution has been a frequent topic of research, due to the effects that it can cause on the health of living organisms, environment and climate. In order to identify pollution sources and their effects, biomonitoring has been studied due to its low cost and possibility of sampling in wide geographic areas. In this study for passive biomonitoring of air pollution levels at the Cidade Universitária Armando Salles de Oliveira (CUASO), University of São Paulo campus, epiphytic lichens of Canoparmelia texana species were used. The lichens collected from tree barks at different sampling sites in the CUASO were cleaned, freeze-dried and ground for analyses. Lichen samples were analyzed by X - ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRFS) and neutron activation analysis (NAA). For XRFS, cylindrical pellets of samples were prepared to determine As, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Rb, S, Sr and Zn. For NAA, lichen sample aliquots along with synthetic elemental standards were irradiated both for short and long periods at the IEA-R1 nuclear research reactor. The induced activities were measured by a gamma ray spectrometer to determine As, Br, Ca Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, K, La, Mg, Mn, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, U, V and Zn. The precision and accuracy of the results were evaluated by the analysis of certified reference materials (MRCs). Their results of relative errors and standard deviations were below 15% for most of the elements. The standardized difference or En score values were lower than |1| indicating satisfactory results. Replicate analyses of a lichen sample by XRFS and NAA, indicated good homogeneity of the sample for the elements determined. The lichen results showed that the mean concentrations of As, Br, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Rb, Sb, Se and U were higher in samples from CUASO than those from regions considered unpolluted. For Fe, K, La, S, V and Zn, they were of the same order of magnitude. The correlation study between the elements showed high correlation (r > 0.7) for elements originated from the natural and anthropogenic sources. The principal component analysis (PCA) applied to the results showed six major components, where components 1 and 2 accounted for 52.9 % of the variance of the data. Enrichment factors (EF) calculated for the results of lichens from CUASO and a region considered unpolluted were EF> 1 for most elements, showing that these elements may be from anthropogenic sources. From the results obtained in this study can be concluded that the elements found in lichens from CUASO can be originated from sources such as resuspension of soil particles and anthropogenic emissions.

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