In this thesis I evaluate the impact of an experiment with free sales of strong beer in two Swedish counties that took place in the 1960s. I do this by studying adult earnings of persons in utero during the experiment. My data includes date and place of birth and allows me to evaluate the impact of the experiment using a difference-in differences methodology, comparing earnings across cohorts and counties. Since the availability of alcohol increased most heavily for persons under the age of 21, and male fetuses are less physiologically robust than female fetuses, I choose to study persons born by mothers younger than 21 separately and also estimate the impact of the experiment separately for men and women. I find that persons born by mothers under the age of 21 during the experiment have lower average earnings than persons born before the experiment, and that the impact is larger on men. My results indicate that the experiment has led to adverse effects on adult earnings, probably caused by the prenatal alcohol exposure’s negative impact on fetal development. This means that alcohol consumption have long-term consequences that represent large costs to society. Since these costs are generally disregarded when evaluating the cost of alcohol consumption, society’s cost of alcohol is probably higher than usually estimated.

O aumento crescente do consumo de cerveja e suas consequências sociais tem sido alvo de estudos nos últimos anos. É interessante entender a efetividade das medidas de prevenção ao consumo excessivo de bebida alcoólica. Para isso, o objetivo dessa pesquisa é analisar a efetividade da comunicação sobre conscientização ao consumo de bebida alcoólica nas propagadas de cerveja com o apoio do eye-tracking, uma técnica de neuromarketing. Acredita-se que este trabalho possa contribuir com medidas de prevenção ao consumo excessivo do álcool e suas consequências. A pesquisa é de natureza qualitativa exploratória realizada em laboratório com uma amostra não probabilística de jovens universitários. No laboratório, os participantes foram submetidos a estímulos, eles assistirama algumas propagandas de cerveja no equipamento de eye-tracking, que captou o movimento ocular do usuário. Após isto, foi aplicado um questionário aos participantes com base nos objetivos específicos. As análises da pesquisa foram realizadas pelo cruzamento das respostas dos questionários e dos dados fornecidos pelo equipamento de eye-tracking. As três hipóteses de pesquisas foram testadas pelo software estatístico Stata mostrando que os alertas de prevenção ao consumo de bebida alcoólica não são efetivos concluindo-se ser necessário estipular parâmetros para a exposição dos alertas para que eles possam ser efetivos. / The objective of this research is to analyze the effectiveness of the communication awareness about the consumption of alcohol in beer propagated with the support of the eye-tracking , a technique of neuromarketing . Due to the increasing consumption of beer and its social consequences is interesting to understand the effectiveness of prevention measures to excessive alcohol consumption in the case of this research the effectiveness of mandatory warnings on beer commercials. This work contributes to the prevention measures of the consequences of excessive alcohol consumption. The research is exploratory qualitative performed in the laboratory with a nonprobabilistic sample of university students. In the laboratory the participants were subjected to stimuli ,ie , attended some beer commercials in the eye-tracking equipment, which captures the user\'s eye movement , and then a questionnaire was applied based on specific objectives . Analyses of the research were performed by crossing the survey responses and data provided by eye-tracking equipment. The three research hypotheses were tested using Stata statistical software showing that warnings prevent the consumption of alcohol are not effective concluding the need to stipulate parameters for display of alerts so that they can be effective.

Background Over the long term, unhealthy lifestyles can lead to many health problems, especially type 2 diabetes (T2D). The aim of the present study was to determine associations between lifestyle factors (smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, and diet) and T2D in American adults (aged ≥20 years) in a nationally representative sample. Methods Data for 12 987 American adults participating in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005–2014 were evaluated. Weighted multiple logistic regression models were used to examine associations between the four lifestyle factors and T2D after adjusting for demographics and socioeconomic status (SES). Prevalence trends for T2D were examined using Cochran–Armitage tests. Results There was a significant increasing prevalence trend for T2D among American adults. Smokers and individuals consuming >12 alcoholic drinks in the past year were less likely to report having T2D than non-smokers (odds ratio [OR] 0.41; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.35–0.48) and those consuming Conclusion All four lifestyle factors were significantly associated with T2D among American adults. The findings of the present study provide useful information for healthcare providers that may help them promote specific lifestyle modifications.

Pharmaceutical compounds represent a rapidly emerging class of environmental contaminants. Such compounds were recently classified by the U.S. Geological Survey, including several antibiotics. An LC-MS/MS screening method for the top five antibiotics in drinking water was developed and validated using a Shimadzu LC-MS-IT-TOF. The separation was performed using a Waters Acquity UPLC BEH C18 column with a gradient elution. Sulfamethazine was exposed to conditions intended to mimic drinking water chlorination, and samples were collected and quenched with excess sodium sulfite. Kinetics of sulfamethazine degradation was followed as well as the formation of the major chlorinated byproduct (m/z 313). For the screening method, all five antibiotic peaks were baseline resolved within 5 minutes. Additionally, precision and accuracy of the screening method were less than 15%. Degradation of sulfamethazine upon exposure to drinking water chlorination occurred by first order kinetics with a half-life of 5.3 × 10(4) min (approximately 37 days) with measurements starting 5 minutes after chlorination. Likewise, the formation of the major chlorinated product occurred by first order kinetics with a rate constant of 2.0 × 10(-2). The proposed identification of the chlorinated product was 4-amino-(5-chloro-4,6-dimethyl-2-pyrimidinyl)-benzenesulfonamide (C12H13N4O2SCl) using MS (n) spectra and databases searches of SciFinder and ChemSpider.

Three treatments designed to reduce the consumption of alcohol by native American high school students were assessed and compared. Selfreferred and staff-referred clients were randomly assigned to three treatment groups: (1) alcohol education and a peer-assisted selfcontrol procedure, (2) a peer-assisted self-control procedure, and (3) a self-monitoring only procedure. All three treatments were conducted by trained peer counselors for 14 weeks. The alcohol education and peer-assisted self-control and the peer-assisted self-control demonstrated reductions in peak blood alcohol concentration, frequency of drinking incidents, and alcohol consumption. The self-monitoring only group demonstrated changes only in frequency of drinking incidents. No significant differences were found between the three treatment programs. Alcohol knowledge was found not to differ between groups and was not found to be related to changes in any of the drinking parameters. Selfesteem changes were found to be highest for Group 2 and were found to relate to changes in all the drinking parameters. Permissive versus abstinence attitudes were not found to differ between groups, but for all subjects higher abstinence attitude scores were found to be significantly related to decreases in peak blood alcohol concentration.

The consumption of alcohol and smoking of cigarettes are both common practices in Australian society. With continued public health efforts exposure to both alcohol and nicotine during pregnancy has diminished, however little is known about exposure to these toxins in the postnatal period and the effect on the breastfed infant. To investigate the pattern of alcohol consumption and cigarette smoking in the postnatal period and the effect on breastfeeding outcomes, a longitudinal study was conducted in two public hospitals with maternity wards in Perth, Australia. Data for the Perth Infant Feeding Study (PIFSII) were collected from 587 mothers between mid-September 2002 and mid-July 2003. While in hospital participating mothers completed a self-administered baseline questionnaire. Follow-up telephone interviews were conducted at 4, 10, 16, 22, 32, 40 and 52 weeks. Data collected included sociodemographic, biomedical, hospital related and psychosocial factors. Further analysis of alcohol data was undertaken on the 1995 and 2001 National Health Survey (NHS) data sets to provide a national perspective. Alcohol and smoking related data were analysed and described using frequency distributions, means and medians. Univariate logistic regression was used to screen for potentially significant variables for subsequent incorporation in the multivariate analysis. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was employed to determine the effect of alcohol consumption and cigarette smoking on breastfeeding outcomes prenatally, antenatally and postnatally, after adjusting for factors identified in the literature as being associated with breastfeeding initiation and duration. The relationship between smoking status and breastfeeding duration was determined using survival analysis. / Analysis of the relationship between breastfeeding duration and the level of postpartum intake was investigated using a Cox hazards model with repeated measures for alcohol consumption. Results showed that: 1. PIFSII. During pregnancy approximately 32% of women stopped drinking alcohol. Thirty five percent of pregnant women continued to consume alcohol during their pregnancy with 82.2% of these women consuming two or fewer standard drinks per week. At 4, 6 and 12 months postpartum, 46.7%, 47.4% and 42.3% of breastfeeding women were consuming alcohol, respectively. 2. NHS. Sixteen point four percent and 1.3% of pregnant women from the 1995 and 2001 NHS, respectively were consuming more than that recommended in ‘Guideline 11’ from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (ie >7 standard drinks/week). 3. NHS. Thirteen percent of lactating mothers from the 1995 NHS and 16.8% from the 2001 NHS were consuming seven or more standard drinks of alcohol in the reference week, thus exceeding the NHMRC recommended level. 4. PIFSII. After 6 months of follow up, women who consumed alcohol at levels of more than two standard drinks per day were almost twice as likely to discontinue breastfeeding earlier than women who drank below these levels (HR 1.9, 95% CI 1.1, 3.0). 5. PIFSII. With regard to smoking, 226 (39%) of mothers reported smoking pre- pregnancy. Mothers who smoked were more likely to have a partner who smoked, to have consumed alcohol prior to pregnancy and less likely to attend antenatal classes. / They were also less likely to know how they were going to feed their baby before conception and be more inclined to consider stopping breastfeeding before four months postpartum. 6. PIFSII. Women who smoked during pregnancy had a lower prevalence and shorter duration of breastfeeding than non-smoking mothers (28 weeks versus 11 weeks, 95% CI: 8.3-13.7). This effect remained even after adjustment for age, education, income, father’s smoking status, mother’s country of birth, intended duration of breastfeeding >6 months and birth weight (risk ratio HR 1.59, 95% CI 1.22 to 2.08). 7. PIFSII. Two hundred and twenty six (39%) mothers reported smoking prior to pregnancy and 77 (34%) of these stopped smoking during pregnancy. Quitting smoking during pregnancy was significantly associated with breastfeeding for longer than six months (OR = 3.70, 95% CI 1.55 to 8.83; p<0.05). The results of the present study suggest a negative association between drinking alcohol in the postpartum period and breastfeeding outcomes. Similarly, smoking cigarettes before, during and after pregnancy negatively affects breastfeeding. There is a need for guidelines outlining the safe intake of alcohol during lactation and for the cessation of cigarette smoking in the prenatal and antenatal period.

The field of marketing does not only consist of traditional marketing and the focus on promoting products and services to increase sales. In recent years a new branch within the marketing field has been established with the focus of promoting behaviours that will benefit the individual and the society as a whole; social marketing. Our purpose with this paper is not only to introduce the reader to social marketing but to describe and explain how social marketing campaigns are created and how the campaigns can be evaluated. The purpose is fulfilled through the use of a qualitative method, namely a case study. Our research question guiding our study is “How can social marketing be understood through the use of an empirical case study?” Our unit of study is the Swedish company IQ-initiativet AB which uses social marketing as a tool to encourage responsible drinking among Swedes. In order to uncover the case of IQ and to answer our research question we used three subquestions. Firstly “How can a social marketing campaign be recognized?”, secondly “How is a social marketing campaign created?” and finally “How is a social marketing campaign evaluated?” To adapt these sub-questions to IQ we performed four in-depth interviews with representatives from IQ, their PR-firm Forsman &amp; Bodenfors and evaluation company Xtreme Nordic. The questions mainly concerned IQ’s national campaigns, which have been shown through various media channels. An interview was also done with the organization IOGT-NTO who promotes a completely sober society in order to get a perspective of the current situation of alcohol consumption in Sweden. From interviews, other sources and earlier research within the field we conclude that even though social marketing is about behavioral change, creating that change is difficult and evaluating an eventual change is even more difficult. IQ focuses on promoting responsibledrinking but cannot link a change in reduced drinking to their specific campaigns. However that does not stop them to do their job. With this case we provide in-depth insight into how one Swedish organization works for healthier drinking behavior. Although the case does not provide empirical generalizations, it provides theoretical contributions that are beneficial for several different stakeholders. Social marketers, campaign organizers/evaluators, commercial marketers and students can benefit from this comprehensive review of social marketing theory and view how it has been appliedin the real life case of IQ. A comprehensive analysis of social marketing is presented in order to increase awareness of the tools that are available for promoting positive behavioral changes in society. The case of IQ exhibits fully functional social marketing campaigns which facilitates understanding and learning for readers by viewing theory in action. The work presented here promotes the development of problem solving skills in order to avoid the common difficulties related to social marketing campaigns and hopes to inspire those interested in future research opportunities.

This study provided the first direct test of the cognitive underpinnings of the attention-allocation model and attempted to replicate and extend past behavioral findings for this model as an explanation for alcohol-related aggression. Men were randomly assigned to a beverage (Alcohol, No-Alcohol Control) and a distraction (Moderate Distraction, No Distraction) condition. All men were provoked by a male confederate and completed a dot probe task and a laboratory aggression task without distraction or while presented with a moderate distraction task. Results indicated that intoxicated men whose attention was distracted displayed significantly lower levels of aggression bias and enacted significantly less physical aggression than intoxicated men whose attention was not distracted. However, aggression bias did not account for the lower levels of alcohol-related aggression in the distraction, relative to the no-distraction, condition. Discussion focused on how these data inform intervention programming for alcohol-related aggression.

The present dissertation aims at analysing the effects of recent alcohol policy changes. The traditional strict policy in Sweden had focused on high pricing and limited availability to control levels of alcohol consumed and thus alcohol-related harms. However, increased travellers’ allowances meant larger availability of cheaper alcohol when importing from Denmark and Germany, which are the countries from which Swedes obtain most of their private imports; the tax decrease in Denmark further decreased the price. As the economic literature links demand to price of a commodity and the early (smaller) quota changes had resulted in higher consumption in southern Sweden, it was expected that these latest changes would mean higher consumption and more alcohol-related problems in this area in particular. Some groups were additionally expected to be more affected than others. The present compilation thesis comprises four related articles and an introductory chapter that ties them together. Article I focuses on private imports in relation to quota changes 2002 – 2004 and relate this to purchase at the alcohol monopoly stores. Self-reported consumption and alcohol-related problems are studied in Article II and IV. In Article III, register data on alcohol-related harms, i.e. hospitalizations and police-recorded crimes, are analysed. The results of the dissertation were puzzling, since there was no large increase in consumption or alcohol-related problems in the south, but increases in the north during the period. However, private imports and cases of hospitalization due to alcohol poisoning were found to have increased in the south. Thus, the results imply that these policy changes had an effect on private imports, but that this effect was not large enough to increase total consumption as well. Additionally, increased alcohol poisoning cases implied that there had been an impact among high consumers. The increases found in consumption and problems in the north may instead have other explanations. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: In press. Paper 2: Submitted. Paper 3: Submitted.</p>

Distinct alcohol self-administration behaviors are observed when comparing two F1 hybrid strains of mice: C57BL/6J x NZB/B1NJ (B6xNZB) show reduced alcohol preference (RAP) after experience with high concentrations of alcohol and abstinence periods and C57BL/6J x FVB/NJ (B6xFVB) show sustained alcohol preference (SAP), providing models of stable, high alcohol consumption and moderate drinking. The purpose of this dissertation is to characterize ethanol-related behaviors and define neurocircuits engaged by SAP and RAP. We performed a battery of behavioral tests to define behaviors that predict SAP and RAP. B6xFVB exhibited less severe ethanol-induced conditioned taste aversion and were less sensitive to ethanol-induced loss of righting reflex (LORR) than B6xNZB. Both hybrids demonstrated ethanol-induced place preference and low ethanol withdrawal severity. Hybrids differ in sensitivity to the aversive and sedative, but not rewarding, effects of ethanol. Results of elevated plus maze, mirror chamber, and locomotor tests reveal B6xFVB mice are less anxious and more active than B6xNZB mice. The validity of the SAP behavioral phenotype in B6xFVB mice was determined by testing whether chronic self-administration of ethanol produced tolerance or dependence. We measured responses from ethanol-naïve and ethanol-experienced mice in tests of ethanol-induced hypothermia, withdrawal severity, and LORR. Chronic ethanol self-administration resulted in tolerance to sedative and hypothermic effects of ethanol; however, physical dependence was not evident as measured by ethanol withdrawal severity. We tested the hypothesis that SAP and RAP behavioral differences are represented by differential production of the inducible transcription factor, FosB. FosB immunoreactivity was quantified in 16 brain structures after chronic ethanol consumption or only water. Neuronal activity (as measured by FosB levels) depended on ethanol experience, brain region, and genotype, further supporting the notion that neuronal circuitry underlies motivational aspects of ethanol consumption. For B6xNZB mice, ethanol consumption resulted in increased neuronal activity in the EW, VTA, and amygdala, known ethanol- reward-, and stress-related brain regions. In B6xFVB, ethanol consumption resulted in a larger network of correlated regional activity, whereas in B6xNZB ethanol consumption resulted in a smaller network. These studies characterized genetic models of stable, high consumption (SAP) and moderate drinking (RAP) in two hybrid mouse strains. / text