A expressão é uma das noções mais importantes da filosofia de Leibniz. O filósofo a aborda diretamente em alguns textos, porém, mais que um objeto de análise, a noção de expressão organiza e faz convergir reflexões acerca da teologia, da ontologia e da epistemologia leibnizianas. Leibniz não é o primeiro a tratar da expressão, a originalidade de sua abordagem está em uma interpretação matemática da expressão, que permite defini-la como uma analogia de relações entre a expressão e o exprimido. Uma coisa exprime outra, diz Leibniz, quando há uma correspondência regular e recíproca entre as duas, ou entre o que se pode dizer de uma e de outra. Assim, a expressão pressupõe a analogia e a harmonia. Definida a relação expressiva nesses termos é possível, no nível teológico ou metafísico, explicar como Deus se exprime em formas simples, absolutas e infinitas, que se exprimem em sistemas gerais de fenômenos ou mundos possíveis, que estão exprimidos em noções individuais e não existem fora delas. No nível ontológico, diremos que os indivíduos exprimem Deus como causa e o mundo de que fazem parte. Esses indivíduos, por sua vez, se exprimem como fenômenos que são unificados pelo pensamento como corpos. A relação que define os corpos e a relação entre corpos exprimem as relações ideais que as substâncias individuais mantêm entre si, a ordem física exprime a ordem metafísica. No nível epistemológico, diremos que nossas idéias exprimem as idéias de Deus, convimos com Deus nas mesmas relações. Mas para conhecer essas relações é preciso desenvolver a expressão presente em uma idéia. A classificação das idéias em Leibniz pressupõe esse desenvolvimento progressivo que se dá como uma análise gradual: as idéias podem ser obscuras ou claras, estas confusas ou distintas, estas inadequadas ou adequadas, e as idéias adequadas podem ser objeto de um conhecimento cego ou simbólico e de um conhecimento intuitivo, muito raro. A abrangência da noção de expressão permite colocar em relação ordens heterogêneas e mostrar a convergência e a semelhança dos diferentes. Nessa medida, podemos relacionar coisas tão diferentes como caracteres e pensamentos, daí a busca de Leibniz por uma língua ou Característica universal. / Expression is one of the most important notions of Leibniz\'s philosophy. The philosopher addresses it directly in some texts, however, more than an object of analysis, the notion of expression organizes and makes reflections about Leibnizian theology, ontology and epistemology converge. Leibniz is not the first to deal with expression; the originality of his approach lies in a mathematical interpretation of expression, which makes it possible to define it as an analogy of relations between expression and expresser. One thing expresses another, says Leibniz, when there is a regular and reciprocal correspondence between the two, or between what can be said of one and the other. Accordingly, expression presupposes analogy and harmony. Having defined the relation of expression in these terms, it is possible, at the theological or metaphysical level, to explain how God expresses himself in simple, absolute and infinite forms, which express themselves in general systems of phenomena or possible worlds, which are expressed in individual notions and do not exist outside them. At the ontological level, we shall say that individuals express God as a cause and the world which they are part of. These individuals, in turn, express themselves as phenomena that are unified by tho ught as bodies. The relation that defines the bodies and the relation between bodies express the ideal relations that individual substances maintain amongst themselves, the physical order expresses the metaphysical order. At the epistemological level, we shall say that our ideas express the ideas of God; we agree with God in the same relations. But to know these relations, the present expression in an idea has to be developed. The classification of ideas in Leibniz presupposes this progressive development that takes place as a gradual analysis: the ideas may be obscure or clear, these ones confused or distinct, these ones inadequate or adequate, and the adequate ideas may be the object of a blind or symbolic knowledge and of an intuitive knowledge, very rare. The scope of the notion of expression makes it possible to put heterogeneous orders into a relation and to show the convergence and similarity of different things. In this measure, we can relate such different things as characters and thoughts, hence Leibniz\'s quest for a universal language or Characteristic.

Notre recherche intitulée Traduction et analogie dans le champ franco-roumain s’inscrit globalement dans le domaine de la traductologie, envisagée comme un espace d’application des théories linguistiques et psychologiques contemporaines exploitant les concepts d’analogie, de conceptualisation et de motivation (P. Monneret, (2004), D. Hofstadter, E. Sander, (2013).La thèse comporte quatre parties, les deux premières, Traduction et Analogie, représentent une incursion théorique ayant pour but d’offrir un nouveau regard sur la réflexion traductive dans une perspective interdisciplinaire, notamment la linguistique analogique, la philosophie et la psychologie cognitive, alors que les deux dernières, Aspects analogiques et phraséologiques dans la traduction et Expérience de traducteur tentent de prouver l’implication des concepts étudiés dans le processus traductif et donnent de l’originalité à cette recherche.Ainsi, la pertinence du concept d’analogie en tant que « conceptualisation d’un état de faits » (J. - R. Ladmiral, (2016)), est examinée en relation avec la traduction comme praxis, afin de rendre compte des phénomènes bien connus de transposition ou d’équivalence auxquels le traducteur se trouve fréquemment confronté, tout particulièrement dans le cas des textes littéraires. On se posera donc la question de la restitution, lors de la traduction, des structures analogiques présentes dans le texte à traduire, à travers un processus de transfert conceptuel ou d’innovation sémantique.Le corpus de la recherche est constitué du roman Cum mi-am petrecut vacanța de vară (Comment j’ai passé mes grandes vacances), écrit par l’écrivain roumain T.O. Bobe, dont la première traduction en français comporte de nombreuses difficultés concernant la transposition en français des expressions figées, des jeux de mots, des parémies, des amalgames, des allusions, des culturèmes définies comme des « unités porteuses d’information culturelle » (G. Lungu-Badea, (2007)).Notre traduction n’est pas une variante exhaustive, elle constitue un défi et un exercice audacieux de maîtrise des techniques traductives et offre matière à réflexions sur les difficultés rencontrées et les stratégies adoptées. / Our research entitled Translation and Analogy in the Franco-Romanian Field is globally carried out within the framework of translation studies, considered as an application area of contemporary linguistic and psychological theories operating with the concepts of analogy, conceptualization and motivation (P Monneret, (2004), D. Hofstadter, E. Sander, (2013).The thesis consists of four parts : the first two, Translation and Analogy, represent a theoretical approach aiming to offer a new perspective on translational thinking from an interdisciplinary point of view, including analogical linguistics, philosophy and cognitive psychology, while the last two, Analogical and Phraseological Aspects in Translation and Translator Experience, attempt to prove the active involvement of the studied concepts in the translational process as well as to provide originality to this research.Thus, the relevance of the concept of analogy as "conceptualization of a state of facts" (J. - R. Ladmiral, (2016)) is examined in relation to translation as praxis, in order to account for the well-known phenomena of transposition or of equivalence to which the translator is frequently confronted, especially in the case of literary texts. We will therefore ask the question of the restitution, during the translation, of the analogical structures present in the text to be translated, through a process of conceptual transfer or semantic innovation.The corpus of research consists of the novel Cum mi-am petrecut vacanţa de vară (How I spent my summer holidays), written by the Romanian writer TO Bobe, whose first translation in French has many difficulties concerning the transposition of fixed expressions, puns, paroimia, amalgams, culturemes defined as "units carrying cultural information" (G. Lungu - Badea, (2007)). Our translation is not an exhaustive version, but more of a challenge and a daring exercise of mastering the translative techniques and it offers food for thought on the difficulties encountered and the strategies adopted.This thesis will also be an opportunity to highlight some aspects of the Romanian ethnocultural space, as well as Romanian contemporary literature and to enable its accessibility to the French-speaking reader.

"Similarity is a central cognitive mechanism for humans which enables a broad range of perceptual and abstraction processes, including recognizing and categorizing objects, drawing parallelism, and predicting outcomes. It has been studied computationally through models designed to replicate human judgment. The work presented in this dissertation leverages general purpose semantic networks to derive similarity measures in a problem-independent manner. We model both general and relational similarity using connectivity between concepts within semantic networks. Our first contribution is to model general similarity using concept connectivity, which we use to partition vocabularies into topics without the need of document corpora. We apply this model to derive topics from unstructured dialog, specifically enabling an early literacy primer application to support parents in having better conversations with their young children, as they are using the primer together. Second, we model relational similarity in proportional analogies. To do so, we derive relational parallelism by searching in semantic networks for similar path pairs that connect either side of this analogy statement. We then derive human readable explanations from the resulting similar path pair. We show that our model can answer broad-vocabulary analogy questions designed for human test takers with high confidence. The third contribution is to enable symbolic plan repair in robot planning through object substitution. When a failure occurs due to unforeseen changes in the environment, such as missing objects, we enable the planning domain to be extended with a number of alternative objects such that the plan can be repaired and execution to continue. To evaluate this type of similarity, we use both general and relational similarity. We demonstrate that the task context is essential in establishing which objects are interchangeable."

A criatividade no design envolve um processo, que inclui tanto o processo cognitivo do indivíduo, quanto os processos de criação, de projeto e de comunicação. O pensamento criativo do indivíduo, com suas operações cognitivas e conhecimentos armazenados, permite a criação de novas conexões entre ideias. Entretanto, considerando uma perspectiva contextual e sistêmica, os pensamentos individuais serão também estimulados e influenciados por contextos sociais e trabalhos em grupos, nos quais as ideias são desenvolvidas também a partir da expressão e comunicação do pensamento do outro. Neste processo, o pensamento por analogias mostrou-se como um procedimento cognitivo fundamental para a formação de combinações e novas relações que são percebidas e então reorganizadas em uma ideia nova. Contudo, há lacunas a respeito do assunto, sobre como auxiliar esse tipo de pensamento nos indivíduos e que estratégias, métodos e estímulos podem ser utilizados em processo criativos em grupo. Nesse sentido, o objetivo desta tese é desenvolver um framework para auxiliar o processo criativo em design, centrando-se no pensamento por analogias, que identifique estratégias e mecanismos que apoiem esse processo em indivíduos e grupos de projeto. Para tanto, foi realizada uma revisão de literatura sobre criatividade, processo e pensamento criativo, bem como a respeito do pensamento por analogias e a sua ocorrência enquanto no pensamento criativo em design. A seguir, a fim de compreender o entendimento dos designers sobre o processo criativo e os facilitadores do pensamento por analogias na prática e no ensino do design, realizou-se a coleta de dados da investigação. A coleta foi realizada através de questionários virtuais para estudantes e docentes de design e de entrevistas semiestruturadas em escritórios de design. O grupo de sujeitos da pesquisa compreendeu designers brasileiros e portugueses, com diferentes níveis de experiência. Os dados obtidos foram analisados e triangulados com a análise da literatura, o que possibilitou o desenho de um modelo contendo os fatores críticos que influenciam a criatividade em grupos e indivíduos, um modelo do processo e pensamento criativo, a identificação de estratégias e mecanismos que podem auxiliar esse tipo de pensamento e, por fim, diretrizes para o desenho do framework conceitual. Com isso, foi desenvolvida uma primeira versão do framework, que foi avaliada com a realização de workshops com três grupos distintos de participantes, incluindo docentes, estudantes e profissionais de design. A partir das avaliações, aprimorou-se o framework conceitual, organizado em cinco etapas e contendo estratégias, ações, mecanismos, recomendações e sugestões de métodos, técnicas e ferramentas para auxiliar o processo criativo e o pensamento por analogias para a criação de conceitos em grupos de design. Dentre as ferramentas sugeridas, foi também desenvolvido um mapa visual, denominado canvas, a exemplo de ferramentas similares, contendo recomendações e questões-chave geradas a partir das estratégias do framework, a fim de auxiliar a sua aplicação na prática projetual. / Creativity in design involves a process that includes both the individual cognitive process as the creative, design and communication processes. The individual creative thinking, with their cognitive operations and knowledge stored, allows the creation of new connections between ideas. However, considering a contextual and systemic perspective, individual thoughts will also be stimulated and influenced by social context and work in groups in which ideas are also developed from the expression and communication of thought the other. In this process, the analogical thinking proved to be a key cognitive procedure for the formation of combinations and new relationships that are perceived and then reorganized into a new idea. However, there are gaps on the subject, how about helping this kind of thinking in individuals and strategies, methods and stimuli can be used in creative group process. In this sense, the objective of this thesis is to develop a framework to assist the creative process in design, focusing on thinking by analogies, identifying strategies and mechanisms to support this process in individuals and project groups. Therefore, there was a review of literature on creativity, process and creative thinking as well as about the thinking by analogies and their occurrence as cognitive process of design creative thinking. Next, in order to identify the understanding of the designers on the creative process and the facilitators of thinking by analogies in practice and design education, held the collection of research data. Data collection was conducted through virtual questionnaires for students and teachers design and semi-structured interviews in design offices. The sample consisted of Brazilian and Portuguese designers with different levels of experience. The data were analyzed and triangulated with the analysis of the literature, which enabled the design of a model containing the critical factors that influence creativity in individuals and groups, a model of the process and creative thinking, the identification of strategies and mechanisms that can assist this kind of thinking, and finally, guidelines for the design of the conceptual framework. Thus, a first version of the framework was developed, which was evaluated by conducting workshops with three different participating groups, including teachers, students and design professionals. From the assessments, improved the conceptual framework, organized into five steps and containing strategies, actions, mechanisms, recommendations and suggestions of methods, techniques and tools to assist the creative process and the thinking analogies to create concepts in groups of design. Among the suggested tools was also developed a visual map, called the canvas, like similar tools, containing recommendations and key issues generated from the framework of the strategies in order to assist their application in design practice.

The goal of the work reported here is to capture the commonsense knowledge of non-expert human contributors. Achieving this goal will enable more intelligent human-computer interfaces and pave the way for computers to reason about our world. In the domain of natural language processing, it will provide the world knowledge much needed for semantic processing of natural language. To acquire knowledge from contributors not trained in knowledge engineering, I take the following four steps: (i) develop a knowledge representation (KR) model for simple assertions in natural language, (ii) introduce cumulative analogy, a class of nearest-neighbor based analogical reasoning algorithms over this representation, (iii) argue that cumulative analogy is well suited for knowledge acquisition (KA) based on a theoretical analysis of effectiveness of KA with this approach, and (iv) test the KR model and the effectiveness of the cumulative analogy algorithms empirically. To investigate effectiveness of cumulative analogy for KA empirically, Learner, an open source system for KA by cumulative analogy has been implemented, deployed, and evaluated. (The site "1001 Questions," is available at http://teach-computers.org/learner.html). Learner acquires assertion-level knowledge by constructing shallow semantic analogies between a KA topic and its nearest neighbors and posing these analogies as natural language questions to human contributors. Suppose, for example, that based on the knowledge about "newspapers" already present in the knowledge base, Learner judges "newspaper" to be similar to "book" and "magazine." Further suppose that assertions "books contain information" and "magazines contain information" are also already in the knowledge base. Then Learner will use cumulative analogy from the similar topics to ask humans whether "newspapers contain information." Because similarity between topics is computed based on what is already known about them, Learner exhibits bootstrapping behavior --- the quality of its questions improves as it gathers more knowledge. By summing evidence for and against posing any given question, Learner also exhibits noise tolerance, limiting the effect of incorrect similarities. The KA power of shallow semantic analogy from nearest neighbors is one of the main findings of this thesis. I perform an analysis of commonsense knowledge collected by another research effort that did not rely on analogical reasoning and demonstrate that indeed there is sufficient amount of correlation in the knowledge base to motivate using cumulative analogy from nearest neighbors as a KA method. Empirically, evaluating the percentages of questions answered affirmatively, negatively and judged to be nonsensical in the cumulative analogy case compares favorably with the baseline, no-similarity case that relies on random objects rather than nearest neighbors. Of the questions generated by cumulative analogy, contributors answered 45% affirmatively, 28% negatively and marked 13% as nonsensical; in the control, no-similarity case 8% of questions were answered affirmatively, 60% negatively and 26% were marked as nonsensical.

Visual knowledge appears to be an important part of problem solving, but the role of visual knowledge in analogical problem solving is still somewhat mysterious. In this work I present the Constructive Adaptive Visual Analogy theory, which claims that visual knowledge is helpful for solving problems analogically and suggests a mechanism for how it might be accomplished. Through evaluations using an implemented computer program, cognitive models of some of the visual aspects of experimental participants, and a psychological experiment, I support four claims: First, visual knowledge alone is sufficient for transfer of some problem solving procedures. Second, visual knowledge facilitates transfer even when non-visual knowledge might be available. Third, the successful transfer of strongly-ordered procedures in which new objects are created requires the reasoner to generate intermediate knowledge states and mappings between the intermediate knowledge states of the source and target analogs. And finally, that visual knowledge alone is insufficient for evaluation of the results of transfer.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2003. / Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 186-192). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users.

Our study investigated the processing of compound vocabulary of bilingual (BL) Mandarin-English children and their performance in comparison to monolingual (ML) English children. From this study, we sought to determine (a) how the BL children performed in Mandarin compared to English (b) how the BL children performed compared to the ML children, and (c) how background factors, such as language use and vocabulary size affect compound processing. We predicted that the BL children would show an advantage on compound processing tasks over the ML children due to the importance of compounding in word formation in Mandarin Chinese. In addition, we also used performance on picture vocabulary tasks as covariates to take into consideration potential differences in vocabulary size, as BL children often have a smaller vocabulary in each language because of distribution across languages. Data were collected from 25 BL Mandarin-English children (between 40 to 104 months of age) who were matched within three months to 25 ML English children (between 40 to 105 months of age). Children participated in a compound analogy task, in which they produced novel compounds after a model; and a compound knowledge task, in which they explained real compounds. Comparing performance across languages, results showed that the BL children demonstrated higher performance in the dominant language (English) than in the nondominant language (Mandarin). The BL children were more likely to accurately produce novel compounds, but also more likely to make errors that involved the use of compounds. No significant difference was found in BL and ML performance on compound knowledge tasks. Significant relationships were found for some of the participant characteristics for both the BL and ML children and performance. In particular, age, picture identification, and picture naming performance were correlated with compound performance for the BL participants; performance on the picture identification task and compound processing tasks were correlated with each other for the ML participants. These findings provided limited support for our hypothesis. Future investigations should include BL participants who have a more balanced proficiency in both languages, as well as examine factors that were found to influence ease of compound processing. / text

The research was conducted in the light of a training programme which will train a total of 150 engineers of AVIC I in Cranfield University during a period of 3 years. Cost has become an essential driver to aircraft design, as well as performances due to either the limited defence budget or competitive airline market. Consequently, knowing the possible cost prior to making actual expenditure will help managers to make proper decisions and allocate resources efficiently, and designers to optimize their work. Existing aircraft cost estimating models are outdated and mainly based on a database including both military and civil aircraft with various missions. This research concentrated on commercial jet aircraft and was to develop a suitable acquisition cost estimating methodology for conceptual design from a commercial aircraft manufacturer’s perspective. The literature reviewing took a comprehensive overview of some widely-applied cost estimating methods: Analogy, Parametric, Bottom-up, Feature-based costing, Activitybased costing (ABC), Expert judgement, and etc. Some practical cost models were also reviewed to learn the application of cost estimating in the aerospace industry. Then, analogy and parametric approaches were selected to perform the methodology development considering the limited data available at the conceptual design phase. An investigation was deployed to identify the actual problems in practice. The results helped to recognize the needs of industry. Also, the preparation works for development are presented to understand the environment. With subjective judgement and statistical techniques, a series of cost estimating relationships (CERs) were achieved, in which some historic explanatory parameters remained or were eliminated, and some new ones introduced. Size of aircraft became another variable besides weight. As to engines, all developed explanatory variables have been revealed in prior researches. The validation of CERs proves that they can provide reliable cost estimates with high accuracy and can be applied to conceptual design. In addition, a case study was conducted using a baseline aircraft defined in the group design project (GDP) and presents cost forecasting for the proposed aircraft. At last, discussion and conclusion presents an overview of the research. A framework for cost estimating system can be educed. Also, the future work is proposed for in-depth research.

Fashion and the contemporary environment as a whole, is a complex environment that requires retailers and wholesalers to adapt to the changes that constantly occurring. This adaptation is in a bid to ensure that more profits than loses are realized by the company. For this reason, companies have to use various methods to determine the best ways to improve their products. Companies resolve to introduction of new product to the market but the acceptance of new products to the fashion industry is not an assured factor but rather a gamble. This is mainly because of the industry’s characteristics. The main aim of this thesis is to analyze the methods that may be used to improve the accuracy of new products. The fashion industry has characteristics that may be considered as challenges because for instance, when a product is launched, one has to determine whether it is by a reputable designer or whether it is a trend, and with the fashion industry, trends are mainly turned into such by celebrities who introduce a certain design to the world for adoption. These challenges or characteristics are carefully analyzed and examined with the necessity of the introduction of new products analyzed. Data collection, being the main backbone of this thesis and multiple-case study method, is used to answer the research question as “How can structured analogy method be used to improve the forecast accuracy for the footwear products in the fashion industry “.Samples for case study have been chosen from footwear category. Structured analogy method is used to determine the accuracy of the information gathered from literature review.