Although the science of learning and memory has been well studied within the confines of laboratory environments, more recent investigations have attempted to apply these principles to educational practice. Understanding the mechanisms involved with the encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of knowledge learned in the classroom provides an avenue for improving instruction and designing interventions for struggling students. The current study examines the memorial mechanisms underlying the retention of anatomical information in first year gross anatomy students. This study uses a variant of the Remember/Know/New recognition memory paradigm to quantify participants' subjective memorial experience that, in turn, may be related to the underlying cognitive mechanisms used by students to retain information over time. Prior research has suggested that Remember and Know responses are associated with the memorial processes of Recollection and Familiarity, respectively. Thirty-one students from a gross anatomy course completed a computer-based memory task at three time points: prior to the course (time 1), after the completion of the course (time 2), and six months later (time 3). Students were presented with anatomical terms and were asked to respond as to whether they "Can Define", are "Familiar" with or "Don't Know" each term. It was predicted that students who performed better in the course would have a stronger sense of recollection immediately after the course as indexed by "Can Define" responses. Further, we predicted that these students would have more "Can Define" responses and fewer "Familiar" and "Don't Know" responses after six months relative to lower achieving students. The results show an increase in "Can Define" responses from time 1 to time 2 that were attenuated at time 3 with an accompanying increase in "Familiar" responses, suggesting students do not completely forget concepts but are not able to recall as many specific descriptive details compared to time 2. A positive correlation between final course grade and proportion of "Can Define" items at time 3 was revealed; suggesting the durability of learning is stronger in those that performed better in the course. These results offer a better understanding into the long-term retention of course content and a glimpse at individual differences in memory.

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Institutions are looking to find the best learning technologies to deliver anatomy curricula to diverse student populations, often working with financial and time-based constraints. Visualization techniques, particularly the widespread use of virtual reality headsets, have made once-impossible learning experiences possible. This thesis explores the effect of different learning modalities (virtual reality headset, computer screen, and 3D-printed models) and environments (clinical context or context-free) on knowledge acquisition and learning experiences for a pelvic floor anatomy module. We investigated how these factors, along with mental rotation ability and stereoacuity, impact various aspects of learning, including performance on anatomy tests, perceived workload (measured using the NASA Task Load Index), cybersickness (measured using the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire), and engagement during learning (measured using the User Engagement Scale). Significant interactions were found between modality and environment for test scores and workload, a significant main effect of modality and environment for cybersickness, and a significant main effect of modality for engagement. Importantly, though significant differences were found between modalities and environments, participants reported concerningly high levels of workload and cybersickness across all conditions. High levels of engagement were also reported across all learning conditions. The lack of meaningful differences between intervention groups emphasizes the importance of curricular design over the implementation of new technologies and the need to be critical of the impression that a one-size-fits-all solution exists. Theories of cognitive load, constructivism, syncretion, visuospatial ability, cybersickness, and embodied learning in the context of technology-enhanced anatomy education are discussed as the foundation upon which design decisions should be made. A multi-faceted approach focused on aligning learning objectives with learning activities is outlined as a means of driving more impactful research and improving anatomy education. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Institutions are looking to find the best learning technologies to deliver anatomy curricula to diverse student populations, often working with financial and time-based constraints. Visualization techniques have been at the forefront of this innovation, and the widespread use of virtual reality headsets has made once-impossible learning experiences achievable. This thesis explores the effect of different learning modalities and environments on learning with a pelvic floor anatomy module. We investigated how these factors, along with mental rotation ability and stereoacuity impact test performance and the perception of workload, cybersickness, and engagement. The results emphasize the importance of curricular design over the implementation of new technologies and the need to be critical of the impression that a one-size-fits-all solution exists.

This research study was conducted to examine student perceptions about learning anatomy and to explore how these perceptions shape the learning experience. This study utilized a mixed-methods design in order to better understand how students approach learning anatomy. Two sets of data were collected at two time periods; one at the beginning and one at the end of the academic semester. Data consisted of results from a survey instrument that contained open-ended questions and a questionnaire and individual student interviews. The questionnaire scored students on a surface approach to learning (relying on rote memorization and knowing factual information) scale and a deep approach to learning (understanding concepts and deeper meaning behind the material) scale. Students were asked to volunteer from four different anatomy classes; two entry-level undergraduate courses from two different departments, an upper-level undergraduate course, and a graduate level course. Results indicate that students perceive that they will learn anatomy through memorization regardless of the level of class being taken. This is generally supported by the learning environment and thus students leave the classroom believing that anatomy is about memorizing structures and remembering anatomical terminology. When comparing this class experience to other academic classes, many students believed that anatomy was more reliant on memorization techniques for learning although many indicated that memorization is their primary learning method for most courses. Results from the questionnaire indicate that most students had decreases in both their deep approach and surface approach scores with the exception of students that had no previous anatomy experience. These students had an average increase in surface approach and so relied more on memorization and repetition for learning. The implication of these results is that the learning environment may actually amplify students' perceptions of the anatomy course at all levels and experiences of enrolled students. Instructors wanting to foster deeper approaches to learning may need to apply instructional techniques that both support deeper approaches to learning and strive to change students' perceptions away from believing that anatomy is strictly memorization and thus utilizing surface approaches to learning.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Ongoing changes to medical education curricula in the United States require continued evaluation of best practices for maintaining and enhancing anatomical education in medical schools. The purpose of this study was to identify the impacts of incorporating an alternating dissection schedule, peer teaching, and self-directed learning (SDL) in the Human Gross Anatomy (A550-551) laboratory for students in the first year of medical school at Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington (IUSM-BL). The researcher sought to determine the impacts of peer teaching and dissection on student gross anatomy grades, to explore the underling perceived effects of peer teaching on the student gross anatomy experience, and to explain how a gross anatomy course, specifically the laboratory component, could contribute to the development of SDL. A mixed method design was selected to combine the analytic strengths of quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative analysis using a generalized estimating equation determined the act of dissection had an impact on students’ abilities to correctly identify structures on human gross anatomy assessments. An analysis of variance determined that student gross anatomy final grades, lecture exam averages, laboratory practical exam averages were unchanged when incorporating peer teaching and alternating dissections into the laboratory sessions. A grounded theory methodology identified perceived changes in the student experience in A550-551 through analysis of student interviews, instructor interviews, and course assignments. In conclusion, the researcher determined that active dissection is a critical component in gross anatomy; however, peer teaching and alternating dissections offset the negative impacts of reduced dissections hours through: increased active dissection time, decreased intragroup conflict, new opportunities to develop teaching and communication skills, and increased efficiency in the anatomy laboratory classroom. Additionally, this research described suggestions for future successful implementations of SDL in A5500-551. These findings provide information for educators at IUSM-BL as they make revisions to meet curricular demands and inform ongoing discussions in anatomy education related to the importance of dissection, time for laboratory experiences, and the continued goal for excellence in educating students.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Anatomy Academy (AA) is a service-learning program in which pre- and current health professional students (Mentors) work in pairs to teach anatomy, physiology, and nutrition to children in the community. The purpose of this study was to investigate the short- and long-term Mentor outcomes in personal, social, civic, academic, and professional domains. Former Mentors were invited to complete a survey of Likert-style and free response questions evaluating the perceived impact of their AA experience on: teaching skills, personal and interpersonal development, civic engagement, and academic and professional development. Follow-up interviews with a subset of survey respondents were performed. The survey was completed by 219 Mentors and 17 survey respondents were interviewed. Over 50% of former Mentors reported moderate or major impact of AA participation on elements of personal and interpersonal development (e.g., selfesteem [57.6%], altruism [67.9%], communication skills [60.1%], and ability to work with others [72.6%]) and community service participation (54.2%) that endures in the years after the program. Mentors who worked with low-income or Special needs populations reported unique impacts in personal, interpersonal, and civic domains. A majority of former Mentors agreed that AA participation helped them learn practical skills (76.3%) and factual knowledge (65.4%) relevant to the their careers, with several current health professionals reported that they regularly employ teaching and interpersonal skills learned while Mentors in their roles as physicians, nurses, or physician’s assistants. A majority of former Mentors reported that AA validated their choice to either pursue a healthcare career or not (59.7%), increased their confidence in performing professional tasks (64.7%), and helped shape their professional identity (58.9%). These results indicate that a health education-based service-learning program offers undergraduate, graduate, and professional students interested in or actively pursuing a healthcare career benefits across personal, interpersonal, civic, and professional domains that support their academic progress and preparation for professional practice. This study contributes much-needed evidence of the long-term student outcomes of service-learning to the literature, with a particular focus on how the pedagogy can supplement the education and professional development of pre- and current health professional students.

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Team-based learning (TBL) is one strategy for improving team-work and critical thinking skills. It has proven to be an engaging teaching pedagogy in face-to-face classes, however, to our knowledge, has never been implemented online in a 3-D virtual world. We implemented virtual TBLs in an online undergraduate anatomy course using Second LifeTM, and evaluated whether it engaged students. This study was conducted over 2 semesters with 39 total students. Surveys and content analysis of transcripts were used to evaluate student engagement. Our results indicate virtual TBLs were engaging for most students. The average engagement score was 7.8 out of 10 with 89.2% of students reporting a score of 6 or above. Students exhibited high levels of cognitive engagement during the clinical application portion of the TBL process. Males felt more emotionally engaged than females, however, most measures of engagement indicated no differences between groups of students (mode of communication, previous technology experience, gender, and performance); therefore, virtual TBLs may be engaging for a broad range of students. 95% of students agreed that this was a worthwhile experience. In light of this evidence, we feel that virtual TBL sessions are valuable, and could be implemented in other online courses.

O uso da digitalização e da impressão tridimensional (3D) com a produção de biomodelos que possam ser usados em aulas práticas das disciplinas de anatomia veterinária no Brasil é uma ferramenta inovadora. O acesso dos alunos a essa material didático pode representar um aspecto importante no aprendizado da anatomia de animais domésticos. Neste estudo, foi utilizado um scanner que faz a captura tridimensional das imagens e uma impressora 3D que realiza a impressão por deposição de material fundido (FDM) para produzir modelos esqueléticos de do membro torácico do equino. Foram usados a escápula, o úmero, radio e ulna, ossos do carpo e falanges usada para produzir modelos digitais. Estes foram então usados para produzir modelos físicos através da impressão, realizada em várias escalas. As características anatômicas dos modelos impressos tridimensionais (3D) foram então comparadas com as dos ossos do esqueleto original. Os resultados deste estudo demonstraram que os biomodelos de animais podem ser rapidamente produzidos usando a tecnologia de impressão 3D. Em termos de precisão entre os biomodelos e as peças anatômicas originais não houve diferença significativa na estatística. Todas as características, exceto o forame nutrício, puderam ser identificadas nas cópias impressas em 3D. / The use of three-dimensional (3D) scanning and printing for the production of biomodels that can be used in practical classes of veterinary anatomy disciplines in Brazil is an innovative tool. The students ease of access to this teaching material can be an important aspect of learning the anatomy of domestic animals. In this study, a scanner was used to capture three-dimensional images and a 3D printer that performs die-cast printing (FDM) was used to produce skeletal models of equines thoracic limb. The scapula, humerus, radius and ulna, carpal bones and phalanges were used to produce digital models and physical models for 3D impressions. The anatomical characteristics of the three-dimensional printed models were then compared with those of the original skeletal bones. The results of this study demonstrated that animal biomodels can be rapidly produced using 3D printing technology. In terms of precision between the biomodels and the original anatomical parts, there was no significant statistical difference. All the characteristics, except for the foramen nutritium, were successfully identified in the 3D printed copies.