Six related problems in calendrical study are addressed. In Chapter 2, the West, inheritor of Rome, is seen as solar-calendrical, unfamiliar with Hebrew calendrics apart from the Church's specialised use of a luni-solar calendar for Paschal calculations. Ancient calendars were usually lunar-based, although most periodically synchronised with the seasons (luni-solar). These models are reviewed. In Chapter 3, ANE and Mediterranean calendars show improved international astronomy - historically, the province of priestly astronomers. Yet, in Chapter 4, the third problem is that Mishnaic and Talmudic evidence speaks of strict observance of New Moons and <I>ad hoc</I> intercalation. If mathematical schemes for the lunar month were in operation in the Hebrews' <I>milieu</I> by 380 BCE, why were they so far behind in rabbinical times? The solution is: they deliberately chose to rely on observation. This cannot exclude an earlier, more mathematical tradition (Segal, 1957). The fourth problem, in Chapter 5, is the 364-day solar calendar, associated with Jaubert (1953, 1957), supported by VanderKam (1979), and Davies (1983). By acknowledging the comparative calendrical realism in the <I>Mishmarot</I>, luni-solar and solar evidence is examined in the Primeval History where Creation and Flood evince synchronistic ideas. The fifth problem, in Chapter 6, is the 'Key of Enoch', the idea that Enoch's full age in Gen 5:23 represents 365<I> days</I>. It is shown that <I>Gen 11:10-26 contains a synchronistic calendar of 6 years and 84 years, </I>similar to that hypothesised by Glessmer (1996) for the <I>'Otot</I>. This covert scheme is called Genesis 11 Synchronistic Calendar. The sixth problem, in Chapter 7, is the pre-history of <I>Qumran's</I> synchronistic calendars, which the Genesis calendar illuminates. A failure to recognised the <I>covert calendrical genre</I> was caused by unfamiliarity with ancient calendrics, and a traditional reading of P's genealogies.

<p> This work is a geopolitical analysis of the Byzantine Empire's method of governance, expansion, and imperial administration over the lands it chose to inhabit. While no single scholar or then-contemporary Byzantine author has articulated a specific policy of geostrategy in the Byzantine Empire, this dissertation demonstrates an overt bias in Byzantine military and diplomatic operations toward coastal regions and maintenance of their physical control within the Mediterranean Basin. These imperial choices were fueled largely by: 1) the reigning geopolitical model of the Byzantine Empire; 2) the importance of the capital, today's Istanbul (then Byzantium, and later, Constantinople); 3) the distribution of other major cities of the Empire; and 4) the maritime-based trade economy of the Byzantine Empire.</p>

<p> The purpose of this thesis is to suggest why Athenian oligarchs reacted against the democratic agenda of Panhellenism in 413&ndash;411. Panhellenism was a gradual process of Greek cultural unification, which took on a politicized connotation after the Persian Wars calling for the accession of a hegemon to oppose the Persian Empire. This thesis examines the differences in political ideology between oligarchs and democrats, the increasing economic burdens on oligarchs to finance the Peloponnesian War, and the rift between oligarchic restraint (<i>sophrosyne</i>) and democratic courage (<i>andreia </i> ) as the reasons for the oligarchs' opposition to Panhellenism after the failed Sicilian Expedition. By examining Thucydides' <i>History </i>, various speeches of the Attic orators and Athenian plays, as well as incorporating inscriptionary evidence, this thesis shows that Panhellenism was indeed not a universally held notion in Athens, and that further study must be done on the fragmentary nature of Athenian Panhellenism in the Classical Period.</p>

<p> Earlier studies on Hadrian's Wall have focused on its defensive function to protect the Roman Empire by foreign invasions, but the determination is Hadrian's Wall most likely did not have one single purpose, but rather multiple purposes. This makes the Wall more complex and interesting than a simple structure to keep out foreign intruders. Collective research on other frontier walls' functions and characteristics around the empire during the reign of Hadrian are used to compare and determine the possible function or functions of the Wall. The Wall not only served political purposes, but also had economic and social uses as well.</p>

This thesis studies the works of a Greek doctor who lived in the first century A. D. Rufus of Ephesus. It is based on a reading of primary sources in both Greek, Latin and Arabic. The materials preserved in Arabic translation has not been fully studied before. This thesis attempts to draw a general picture of Rufus' life and practice of medicine. It looks for Rufus' learning centre, places of his practice of medicine and lists his writings and the various editions and translations they went through. The thesis discusses Rufus' status as a practitioner and, in particular, the criteria on which his choice of therapies were based. His explanations of the occurrences of diseases, whether expressed explicitly or implicitly are considered in detail. His views on humoral causation are investigated at length in this study in order to establish Rufus originality or conventionality. Bed-side medicine is another important aspect of Rufus' activities. In order to have an insight into Rufus' clinical thinking, this thesis studies carefully his treatise Medical Questions, in which Rufus advocates interrogating the patient in order to recognize his or her case more accurately and promote a better treatment. This treatise has an important value per se as it is the first ever Greek medical treatise which discusses exclusively the art of medical questioning. This thesis discusses Rufus' methods of therapy by concentrating on three different diseases, lithiasis, melancholy and jaundice. It concludes with paying attention to the issues of the Arabs' interest in the Greek civilization by investigating the reasons behind the translation of Rufus' works into Arabic, identifying the translators, and studying the Arabs' reception of Rufus' teaching.

This study looks at the dynamics of innovation: why innovation occurs, what newness means in diverse areas of life, how social, cultural and individual attitudes to novelty interact, and the wider impact of innovation. The historical focus is ancient Athens, a society well known for its originality and creativity. Despite Athens' well-known competitiveness and flair for innovation, classical historians have tended to emphasise its traditionalism and respect for the past. However, the comedies of Aristophanes testify to the deliberate pursuit of innovation and to the effects of rapid and wide-ranging change in the late fifth and early fourth centuries B.C. They are adduced, together with other sources for the period, as evidence for the kinds of innovation that took place in politics, law, religion and warfare, as well as in specialist skills (technai) such as rhetoric, the visual arts, music, and medicine. The sources reveal diverse reactions, ranging from ambivalence and anxiety to excitement and optimism, to the experience of newness in these culturally key areas of Athenian life. Attitudes and behaviour differed between individuals and social groups, depending on the area of innovation. A combination of factors served to encourage the drive to innovate: material circumstances such as commercialism, war, and imperial rule; social pressures such as competitiveness, democratic openness, and the desire for acclaim; and technical imperatives such as the pursuit of accuracy, efficacy, and originality. The proliferation of tools of verbal communication (specifically rhetoric and writing) to express and record new ideas; is a pervasive theme. In conclusion, a broad trend is discerned for the period, showing Athenians towards the end of the fifth century to have been unusually interested in the meaning and possibilities of innovation. Aristophanes' characterisation in particular of the climate of newness suggests an intriguing historical analogue to recent discourses of postmodernity.

The principal focus of this thesis is the Upper Maeander Valley in Phrygia, which is now part of modern Turkey, and in particular three cities situated in that region, namely Laodicea, Hierapolis and Colossae. The main source used is the coinage produced by these cities with the aim of determining how they viewed their place within the Roman Empire and how they reacted to the realities of Roman rule. Inscriptional, architectural and narrative sources are also used as well as comparative material from other Phrygian and Asian cities. In order to achieve its aim, the thesis is divided into two parts. Part One details the history of Laodicea, Hierapolis and Colossae and explains the coinage system in use within the province of Asia on a regional and a civic level. The final chapter in the first part of the thesis introduces the theme of the interaction between city, region and empire which is developed more fully in Part Two. Part Two discusses the types used on the coins of the cities of the Upper Maeander Valley in the context of the cultural and religious circumstances of Rome and also in reaction to the organisational and political changes affecting the province of Asia as well as the Empire as a whole. The main conclusions of the thesis are that the cities of Laodicea, Hierapolis and Colossae were very aware of Rome and of their own status, as well as that of their province, within the Roman Empire especially in the context of ongoing circumstances and developments within the Empire. As a whole, the thesis clearly highlights the ways in which city, region and empire interacted together and shows that studies of particular regions and their coinage deserve more attention than they have hitherto received.

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The aim of this thesis was to gather an in-depth understanding of the changes in the role of the Roman father during the Middle Roman Republic by analyzing a play called The Adelphi by Terence. A literature review was conducted to highlight the divergent views on Roman and Greek education and fatherhood, and its application in Rome. When Rome came into contact with Greece in 241BC, controversy was sparked on how a Roman father should raise his sons. This conflict arose because Greek fathers tended to raise sons with kindness, fairness, and equity in contrast to the heavily traditional, stern, strict, and restrictive methods of Roman fathers. There was a recent debate among modern scholars on this topic; however, it has generally been agreed that the Roman father was no longer a cold and overcontrolling paternal figure in Middle Republic. Because of the scarcity of primary sources dating before the first century BCE, Terence's Adelphi is a valuable piece of evidence for understanding the 2nd Century BCE controversy that arose between those for and against all things Greek: philosophy, art, literature, mores, cultural norms and education. In his play, Terence contemplates this issue and concludes by presenting an ideal father as possessing a balance of both Roman conventional morals and paternal authority, and Greek kindness and fairness to foster affection and respect among family members. This is evident when the protagonist, the heavily traditional Roman father, Demea, initially having alienated his sons, changes his behaviour after adopting these Greek characteristics to earn back both his sons’ affection. The importance of this conclusion to the play suggests that Greek Philosophy and cultural mores began to influence Roman fatherhood and education as early as 160 BCE when the play was produced posthumously in Rome. More specifically, Terence’s play was one of the first social plays to impact Roman society by portraying an ideal image of a shofter, and gentler Roman father, who did not solely rely on the absolute power and control he possessed over his sons. Although there is primary evidence in literary works to support that the Adelphi continued to gain popularity in first century BCE with its Greek concepts of kindness, fairness, and equity in fatherhood and education, future archeological research of Roman family tombstones in Rome may further shed light on the issue concerning the extent to which Greek philosophy and mores influenced and impacted Roman society in the 2nd Century BCE.