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This thesis investigates the work of Nikolaas (Niko) Tinbergen and his students, often known as the Tinbergians. Based on extensive archival research, and particularly on intensive study of fieldnotes – a resource largely untouched in previous historical enquiry – I throw new light on the scientific practices both of Tinbergen himself and the practices of individual students of his, including the relationship between research in the field and in the laboratory and the relationship between that research and the Tinbergians representation of their science, both to scientific and lay audiences. Chapter one investigates Tinbergen's own background, and his writings on method and practice. This included a commitment to studying 'natural' behaviour, which led them to be wary of experimental methods that might distort such behaviour. Tinbergen's idea of the 'ethogram' – a complete listing of the behavioural repertoire of a species – is here linked to earlier interest in comparative anatomy as a means of elucidating evolutionary relationships Contrary to the work of Eileen Crist, who argues that ethologist concern to produce mechanomorphic descriptions of behaviour led them to see their animals as machines, I show that the fieldnotes regularly included anthropomorphic description, which only later was excised in writing up scientific publications where mechanistic description and a programmatic rejection of anthropomorphism were the norm. The backgrounds of many of Tinbergen's contemporaries and students was considered in the first half of chapter two, and showed that almost all members of the school had a background in amateur natural history and strong personal and aesthetic affection for the animals they studied. The early fieldwork of the Tinbergians is examined in more detail in the second half of the chapter. This considers the work of two of Tinbergen's students: Robert Hinde and Martin Moynihan. Hinde's work is shown to be transitional between earlier approaches to animal behaviour and the more systematic methodology promoted by Tinbergen, while Moynihan's work instantiated a particularly pure expression of early Tinbergian ideals. Tinbergen's Oxford laboratory is the subject of chapter three, looking in particular at how 'natural' behaviour was studied in an artificial environment. I look at the work of Desmond Morris, Margaret Bastock (later Manning) and J. Michael (Mike) Cullen. Morris's work reproduced field techniques of intensive close observation of behaviour in the laboratory. Bastock's work, largely overlooked by previous historians, showed interest in behaviour genetics. Cullen's work illustrates the difficulties of studying natural behaviour under laboratory conditions, and emphasises the value that Tinbergians placed on direct observation over other possible recording techniques. I then proceed to a more general consideration of the relationship between laboratory and field in the early years of the Tinbergen school. Change over time is the theme of chapter four. Many of the early methodological commitments of the school were subsequently abandoned as the observation-led approach to behaviour gave way to a more explicitly theory-led and interventionist concern with causation, development, evolution and function. This was apparent both in the field and in the laboratory, and even included the occasional adoption of vivisection – a method dramatically at odds with the ethos of the early Tinbergen school. The final chapter investigates how Tinbergen and others of his school communicated their work to amateur audiences, and shows that in some instances the anthropomorphic observations excluded for their scientific writings reappear in these more popular communications. I then link this to the Tinbergen school's longstanding interest in human behaviour. The thesis is supplemented by a conclusion, and two appendices one listing the students studied in the thesis, and the other listing as many of Tinbergen's students as I can identify with surety.

Orientador: Mateus José Rodrigues Paranhos da Costa / Coorientador: Fernando Baldi Sebástian Rey / Banca: Sandra Gesteira Coelho / Banca: João Alberto Negrão / Banca: Luciandra Macedo de Toledo / Banca: Geraldo Tadeu dos Santos / Resumo: Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar os efeitos da adoção de um conjunto de boas práticas de manejo no bem-estar de bezerros leiteiros, bem como avaliar os efeitos específicos da presença da mãe nas primeiras 24 horas e da estimulação tátil nesses animais. Para tanto foram realizados dois experimentos, onde no Experimento 1 foram avaliados 48 bezerros machos cruzados (Holandes x Gir x Jersey) e no Experimento 2, 48 bezerras fêmeas da raça Girolando, acompanhando, em ambos os experimentos, os bezerros desde o nascimento até os 120 dias de idade. No Experimento 1, foram adotados dois grupos de manejo: Manejo Controle (bezerros mantidos em casinhas tropicais/EMBRAPA durante todo o período de aleitamento e com desmama abrupta) e Boas Práticas de Manejo (BPM), composto por aleitamento em baldes com bicos, interação social entre os bezerros e tratador-bezerro, estimulação tátil e desmama progressiva. O experimento 2 foi composto por 4 grupos de manejo, com todas as bezerras manejadas com BPM, avaliando-se os efeitos da presença da mãe nas primeiras 24 de horas e da estimulação tátil até o desmame, definindo os seguintes grupos de manejo: TM= as bezerras tiveram a presença da mãe nas primeiras 24 horas de vida; TME= como TM, mas com a adoção de estimulação tátil; TO= as bezerras foram apartadas das mães imediatamente após o nascimento, sendo que estas não tiveram nenhum contanto com suas mães após o parto; TOE= como TO, mas com adoção de estimulação tátil. Para avaliação do bem-estar dos bezerros, em ambos os estudos, foram considerados indicadores de saúde: fisiológicos, comportamentais e de desempenho. Os efeitos dos grupos de manejos sobre os indicadores de bem-estar animal que apresentaram distribuição normal foram avaliados com análises de variância (ANOVA) com medidas repetidas no tempo usando o método da máxima verosimilhança restrita (REML), utilizando o procedimento MIXED do SAS. As... / Abstract: The aims of this study were to evaluate the adoption of good practices of handling effects on dairy calves welfare, and to evaluate the specific effects of the mother's presence in the first 24 hours and the tactile stimulation in these animals. Therefore, we carried out two experiments, Experiment 1 were evaluated 48 male calves crossed (Holstein x Gir x Jersey) and the Experiment 2, 48 calves female Girolando breed. In both experiments, the calves were watching from birth to the 120 days of age. In the Experiment 1, were adopted handling groups: Control Handling (dairy calves in tropical houses during whole suckling period using abrupt weaning) and the Good Practice of Handling (GPH), composed by suckling in teats buckets, opportunity for to express social behaviour, positive interaction human-calf, tactile stimulation and gradual weaning). Experiment 2 consisted of four handling groups, all the calves were handling with GPH, evaluating the effects of the mother's presence in the first 24 hours and tactile stimulation until weaning, to knowledge: MH = the calves had the mother's presence in the first 24 hours of life; MSH = as MH, but with the adoption of tactile stimulation; OH = calves were separated immediately from mother after birth (without any contact with cow); OSH= as OH, but with the adoption of tactile stimulation. To evaluate the dairy calves' welfare, in both studies, were considered the health, physiological, behavioral and performance indicators. The effects of handling groups on animal welfare indicators were evaluated with normal distribution using analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures using the restricted maximum likelihood (REML) by the MIXED procedure of SAS. Means were compared by the Tukey test, with P values <0.10 for deletion and P <0.05 for significance. For the welfare's indicators presented binomial distribution was used the method of restricted maximum likelihood (REML), with application ... / Doutor

A hipótese de \"manipulação comportamental\" supõe que um parasito pode alterar o comportamento de seu hospedeiro visando aumentar a probabilidade de completar seu ciclo evolutivo. Tais alterações aumentariam a taxa de transmissão hospedeirohospedeiro, assegurando ao parasito ou a seus propágulos o encontro de novo hospedeiro. A possibilidade de infecções parasitárias provocarem mudanças comportamentais em seus hospedeiros e a elevada frequência com que o acometimento de seres humanos por larvas de Toxocara e cistos de Toxoplasma ocorre, têm chamado à atenção de pesquisadores interessados no estudo das relações hospedeiro-parasita. Na infecção por Toxoplasma gondii e Toxocara canis, cistos e larvas estão presentes em diversos locais anatômicos incluindo musculatura, coração, pulmões, olhos e cérebro. A presença de parasitos no cérebro dá oportunidade de manipulação do comportamento do hospedeiro. Entretanto, não se sabe qual ou quais mecanismos estão envolvidos no processo de manipulação do comportamento. Os objetivos do presente estudo foram verificar alterações na ansiedade, medo, memória e aprendizagem de Rattus norvegicus experimentalmente infectados por Toxocara canis e/ou Toxoplasma gondii em dois períodos após infecção, bem como a localização das larvas e cistos e presença de placas beta amiloide ( A) na região do hipocampo no tecido cerebral desses roedores corado pela técnica de Hematoxilina e Eosina (HE), e Vermelho de Congo, respectivamente. Foram utilizadas 40 exemplares fêmeas da espécie Rattus norvegicus, com seis a oito semanas. Os animais foram divididos em quatro grupos: Toxocara - 10 ratos infectados com 300 ovos de Toxocara canis, Toxoplasma -10 ratos infectados com 10 cistos de Toxoplasma gondii, Infecção dupla - 10 ratos infectados com 300 ovos de Toxocara canis e 10 cistos de Toxoplasma gondii, e controle - 10 ratos sem infecção. Nos dias 40, 41, 70 e 71 após a infecção, os animais dos grupos infectados e controle foram submetidos à avaliação no Labirinto em Cruz Elevado e Campo aberto. Aos 120 após infecção foi feita avaliação da memória, aprendizado e aversão a urina de gato dos animais no Labirinto de Barnes. No final das análises comportamentais os animais foram levados a eutanásia para retirada do cérebro e confecção dos cortes histológicos preparados em HE e Vermelho de Congo. Os resultados mostraram efeito ansiolítico para ambas as infecções, principalmente para Toxoplasma gondii. Não houve comprometimento da memória e aprendizado no LB, porém os animais infectados por Toxocara canis ou Toxoplasma gondii apresentaram menor tempo para encontrar a toca com urina e entrar nela. A leitura dos cortes histológicos corados com HE mostraram larvas de Toxocara canis e cistos de Toxoplasma gondii em regiões do sistema nervoso central dos animais relacionadas com memória e aprendizado. As lâminas coradas com Vermelho de Congo apresentaram placas beta amiloides ( A) em metade dos animais infectados por Toxoplasma gondii. Conclui-se que a infecção por ambos os parasitos apresenta efeito ansiolítico quando ocorre infecção única. Quando a Infecção ocorre concomitantemente há modulação no comportamento. Além disso, ratas infectadas com infecção única apresentam-se menos aversivas à urina de gatos. / The hypothesis of \"behavioral manipulation\" states that a parasite can change the behavior of its host specifically to improve the chances of completing its life cycle. It means the increase of transmission host to host and ensures that the parasite or their propagules are released in appropriate place increasing their survival . The possibility of parasitic infections to cause behavioral changes in their hosts and the high frequency which the involvement of humans by larvae of Toxocara and Toxoplasma cysts occur , have called the attention of researchers interested in the study of host/parasite relationships. In human beings Toxoplasma gondii cysts and Toxocara canis larvae infections are present in various anatomical sites including muscles, heart, lungs, eyes and brain. The presence of parasites in brain gives opportunity of manipulation of the host behavior. However, the mechanisms involved in the behavior changes are still unclear. The aims of this study were to assess changes in anxiety, fear, memory and learning, as well as the larvae, cysts and the presence of beta amyloid plaques (A) in the hippocampus region of the brain tissue of the Rattus norvegicus exper imentally infected with Toxocara canis and/or Toxoplasma gondii, in two stages of infection, satained with hematoxyl in/eosin (HE) and Red Congo techniques, respectively. Eighty female Rattus norvegicus species, aged six to eight weeks-old were used. The animals were divided into four groups: Toxocara - 10 rats infected with 300 Toxocara canis eggs, Toxoplasma - 10 rats infected with 10 cysts of Toxoplasma gondii, double infection - 10 mice infected with 300 Toxocara canis eggs and 10 Toxoplasma gondii cysts, and control - 10 rats without infection. In the days 40, 41, 70 and 71 after infection, the infected animals and that belonging to the control group were evaluated in the Elevated plus-maze (EPM) and Open- field (OF). At 120 days after infection the memory and learning evaluation and aversion to cat urine by the rats were assessed in the Barnes maze. At the end of the behavioral analysis the animals were euthanized to remove the brain and preparation of histological sect ions stained by Hematox yl in/Eosin (HE) and Congo Red. The results showed anxiolytic effect for both infections, especially for Toxoplasma gondii. There was no impairment of memory and learning in LB, but the animals infected by Toxocara canis or Toxoplasma gondii spentless time to find the bur row with urine and entering it. The reading of the histological sections stained with HE showed larvae of Toxocara canis and Toxoplasma gondii cysts in regions of the central nervous system of animals related to memory and learning. The slides stained with Congo Red showed A-plate for the majority of animals infected by Toxoplasma gondii. It is concluded in the single infection, to both parasites, produced anxiolytic effect. When infections occur concomitantly there was a modulating effect in rats\' behavior. In addition, rats infected with single infection presents less aversive urine cats.

Pelagic Sargassum was used to determine the effects of habitat architecture for one species of shrimp (Leander tenuicornis) and two species of fish (Stephanolepis hispidus and Histrio histrio). Inter-thallus spacing (low, medium, and high) and depth (shallow versus deep) were manipulated independently to test whether the spatial components of habitat architecture. Two differing habitats (Sargassum versus seagrass species) were tested for the structural component of habitat architecture. There were no significant results for inter-thallus spacing experiments for L. tenuicornis and S. hispidus. H histrio selected habitats with medium inter-thallus spacing in two treatments. Large individual H. histrio contributed mostly to the significant effects. All three species selected habitats with a greater depth aspect. Finally, L. tenuicornis and H. histrio selected habitats with greater structural complexity (i.e., Sargassum). These results demonstrate clearly that habitat architecture of Sargassum influences habitat selection by these shrimp and fishes. / by Chelsea O. Bennice. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2012. / Includes bibliography. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / System requirements: Adobe Reader.

Masking or decorator crabs, conceal themselves partially through camouflage, by selecting or indiscriminately attaching materials from their environment to their exoskeleton. Functional aspects of decorating behavior and morphology in this group have not been documented. Using Microphrys bicornutus as a model species, this dissertation demonstrates clearly that decorating is an advantageous phenotype that has evolved to serve several functions. Decorating is a complex behavior that begins when a crab approaches an algal substrate and results in the attachment of algae to hooked setae on the exoskeleton. Once decorated, crabs remain motionless on the substrate until disturbed or until another behavior is initiated. This was confirmed for M. bicornutus, as crabs spent a significant amount of time feeding, remaining motionless, picking, and walking when compared to decorating. Crabs displayed agonistic behaviors during encounters with conspecifics conspecifics. These included both active aggressive behavior and display behavior. Crabs showed a decrease in motility during these encounters, helping maintain dispersed distributions, thereby decreasing intrsapecific encounters in the field. Trials were done to determine the effect of conspecifics, predators and feeding preferences on algal utilization. M. bicornutus showed a significant decrease in the amount of algae used for decoration in the highest density trials (i.e., 4 and 8 crabs). Agonistic displays and aggressive behavior between these crabs likely affected the time available for decorating. Decorated crabs isolated from an algal substrate were more likely to survive in the presence of either of two sympatric fish predators. Thus, being protected by the algal decoration on their exoskeletons. Trials also showed a parallel between algal consumption and algal materials used for decoration. In addition to its protective function, algae used by M. bicornutus for decoration simultaneously serve as short term food supplies for the crabs. Eleven morphologically complex structures were identified and mapped on the exoskeleton. Hooked setae were the primary structures used to attach algae to the crab’s body. Ten additional setal structures were present, including two novel types of setae. On the basis of location and morphological variation exhibited among these latter structures, a primary sensory function may be inferred. / Includes bibliography. / Dissertation (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2013.

Orientador: João Albert Negrão / Banca: Mauro Dal Secco de Oliveira / Banca: Andrea Roberto Bueno Ribeiro / Resumo: Alguns fatores relacionados a produção de leite, como ambiente e manejo, podem alterar o bem estar dos animais provocando estresse e trazendo prejuízos a produção. Daí a importância do estudo do comportamento animal, sua relação com o aumento do cortisol e seus efeitos na produção leiteira. Dez vacas Girolanda e seus bezerros foram avaliados durante as primeiras catorze semanas de lactação. Foram feitas análises comportamentais e colheita de fezes semanais para determinação do nível de cortisol das vacas e dos bezerros. As observações e medidas dos comportamentos foram realizadas após o parto, durante 3 dias por semana, nas 14 primeiras semanas de lactação. Foram analisadas as posições e comportamentos alimentares e maternos das vacas e o comportamento filial dos bezerros. Os valores de cortisol nas fezes para os bezerros foram de 17,87 ng/g de fezes para o parto e 12,51 ng/g de fezes nas semanas após o parto. Os valores de cortisol nas fezes para as vacas foram de 11,71 ng/g de fezes para o parto e 7,59 ng/g de fezes nas semanas após o parto. Para bezerros foi verificada associação entre o cortisol e alguns dos comportamentos, com valores de correlação baixos (r² < 0,30) entre cortisol e "Levanta-se", "Anda", e "Mama' e valores médios de correlação (r² < 0,30 e r² < 0,70) entre o cortisol e "Deitado", "Procura pelos tetos" e 'Tenta mamar". Para vacas também foi verificada associação entre o cortisol mensurado nas fezes e alguns comportamentos maternos. Neste caso, foram encontrados valores de correlação baixos (r ²< 0,30) entre o cortisol e "Facilita a mamada" e valores médios de correlação (r² < 0,30 e r² < 0,70) entre o cortisol e "Lambe a cria", "Estimula a cria a mamar", "Deixa mamar", "Anda ou movimenta-se" e "Afasta-se da cria". As analises de regressão demonstraram que foi possível descrever equações preditorias que fornecem informações importantes sobre a relação cortisol e ... / Abstract: Some factors related to milk production, such as environment management can alter the welfare of animals causing stress and damages to production. Hence, the importance of the study of animal behavior, its relation with increased cortisol and its effects on milk production. Ten girolando cows and their calves were evaluated during the first fourteen weeks of lactation. Behavioral analysis and collection of feces occured weekly stool to determine the level of cortisol in cows and calves. The observations and measurements of the behaviors were performed after delivery, for 3 days a week, in the first 14 weeks of lactation. Positions and eating behaviors and maternal cows and filial behavior of calves were analyzed. The levels of cortisol in the feces for calves were 17.87 ng / g feces in parturition and 12.51 ng / g of feces in the weeks after birth. The cortisol levels in stools for cows were 11.71 ng / g feces in parturition and 7.59 ng / g of feces in the weeks after birth. For calves, was association between cortisol and some of the behaviors with low correlation values (r ² <0.30) between cortisol and "Rises", "Come", and "Nurse" and average correlation (r ² <0 , 30 and r² <0.70) between cortisol and "Lick", "Search by ceilings" and "Tries to feed herself". For cows also was association between cortisol measured in stool and some maternal behaviors. In this case, low values of correlation (r ² <0.30) were found between cortisol and "facilitates breastfeeding" and average correlation (r ² <0.30 and r ² <0.70) between cortisol and "Lick the calf"," stimulates suckling "," Lets calf "," Walk or moving "and" Deviate creates the ". The regression analysis showed that it was possible to describe preditorias equations that provide important information about the relationship cortisol and behavior of calves. Correlations in Lying dow, "ises", "Standing", "searsh" and "Tries to feed herself" were checked. For cows is possible to observe ... / Mestre

Immunity, behavior, and circadian regulation are important ways that animals maintain homeostasis. Defects in these physiologies often lead to disease or even death, yet many questions remain about how these physiologies are related. I explored the interactions between innate immunity, behavior, and circadian regulation by using Drosophila melanogaster, a convenient, genetically tractable model organism with both functionally and molecularly conserved innate immune and circadian clock systems. In the first chapter, I show that feeding, a circadian-regulated behavior, increases immunity to a sepsis-like infection. In the second, I present evidence suggesting that aging-related changes in immunity may be linked to circadian defects. Finally, I use a novel automated method to demonstrate that reduced grooming is a conserved sickness behavior in Drosophila. The feeding project ultimately showed that mutating TORC2 components could increase the host’s ability to kill and clear a bacterial infection, as well as survive the pathogenic effects of infection. Therefore we have identified a possible drug target to create host-based therapies for sepsis patients. We also have established Drosophila as a model system for studying a conserved sickness behavior: reduced grooming. This experimental paradigm will allow researchers to isolate mutants that do not show reduced grooming, and investigate whether this sickness behavior is adaptive or not.

To understand the emergent properties of neural circuits it would be ideal to record the activity of every neuron in a behaving animal and decode how it relates to behavior. We have achieved this with the cnidarian Hydra vulgaris, using calcium imaging of genetically engineered animals to measure the activity of essentially all of its neurons. While the nervous system of Hydra is traditionally described as a simple nerve net, we surprisingly find instead a series of functional networks that are anatomically non-overlapping and are associated with specific behaviors. Three major functional networks extend through the entire animal and are activated selectively during longitudinal contractions, elongations in response to light and radial contractions, while an additional network is located near the hypostome and is active during nodding. Additionally, we show that the behavior of Hydra is made of regularly occurring radial contractions, which expel the content of the gastric cavity about every 45 minutes. These results demonstrate the functional sophistication of apparently simple nerve nets, and the potential of Hydra and other basal metazoans as a model system for neural circuit studies.

The search for food and adequate nutrition determines much of an animal's behavior, as it must ingest the macronutrients, micronutrients, and water needed for growth, reproduction and body maintenance. These macro- and micronutrients are found in varying proportions and concentrations in different foods. A generalist consumer, such as many primates, faces the challenge of choosing the right combination of foods that confers adequate and balanced nutrition. Diet selection is further complicated and constrained by antifeedants, as well as digestive morphology and physiological limitations. Nutritional ecology is the study of the connected relationships between an organism, its nutrient needs (determined by physiological state), its diet selection, and the foraging behavior it uses within a specific food environment. Additionally, these relationships are complex and changeable since the nutrient needs of a consumer change over time and food resources (including the nutritional composition) vary spatiotemporally. Published data on primate nutritional ecology are limited, with most investigations of nutritional needs stemming from captive populations and few field studies. To contribute to the body of knowledge of nutritional ecology in natural populations, I examined the nutritional ecology of wild adult female blue monkeys, Cercopithecus mitis. I used the geometric framework (GF) to quantify nutritional patterns, as it allows simultaneous examination of multiple nutrients that may be driving foraging behavior and patterns of food intake. Blue monkeys are known to be generalist feeders, with flexible feeding behavior. The population I studied inhabits the Kakamega Forest, western Kenya. This forest has a history of variable human modification on a small scale, and offered a unique opportunity to examine environmental factors (e.g. degree of human-modification of forest type, food availability), social factors (dominance rank), and physiological factors (reproductive demand) that may alter blue monkey nutritional strategies. From January and September 2015, a team of field assistants and I collected behavioral data from 3 study groups, intensively sampling 24 adult females that varied in dominance rank and reproductive condition. I used all-day focal follows to quantify feeding behavior, which allowed me to assess diet selection and nutrient intake on a daily basis. I also monitored subjects' daily movement. To assess food availability, I quantified vegetative differences among major habitat types within each group's home range and monitored biweekly changes in plant production of fruits and young leaves, which were major constituents of the plant-based diet. I collected >300 food samples, as well as fecal samples, and analyzed them for macro-nutritional content using wet chemistry and near-infrared spectroscopy techniques. I combined data to examine patterns in diet and nutritional strategy on different scales: patterns across subjects, between groups and within the population as a whole, patterns in the diet on the food composition level versus nutrient intake level, and patterns in nutrient intake on a daily basis versus a long term basis (i.e. over the course of the study period). Additionally, I evaluated factors that might affect variation in nutritional strategies, including a female's reproductive condition, dominance rank, habitat use, and degree of frugivory or folivory in daily intake, as well as food availability in the environment. Kakamega blue monkeys ate a broad diet of over 445 food items (species-specific plant parts and insect morphotypes). Fruit was preferred food, and particular species-specific fruits constituted the majority of important food items (i.e., those contributing >1% of total caloric intake by group); many fruits were highly selected (i.e. eaten more than expected based on availability). Many species-specific young leaves also were important food items, though they were eaten in proportion to their availability, or even less often. Regardless of whether group diet was characterized by time spent feeding or by calories, fruit remained the largest constituent and young leaves the second largest. A subject's daily path length was negatively related to proportion of fruit in the diet (by kcal) because females focused feeding in particular trees when important fruits ripened and thus traveled less. Daily path length was not related to group size, probably because females spread out when foraging to avoid within-group scramble competition over food. Group differences in the food composition of diets likely reflected habitat differences in food distribution. Comparison of the population's diet to data from previous studies showed that as study groups moved into new areas and habitats, they capitalized on new food resources, reinforcing the idea that blue monkey are flexible feeders. During this study, subjects adjusted their diet in response to food availability in the environment, consuming more fruit (by percentage of diet and absolute kcal) when fruit was more available. In contrast, subjects ate fewer young leaves (by absolute kcal) when either fruit or young leaves were more available, suggesting that young leaves served as fallback food. At the level of nutrient intake, it was also true that females consumed significantly more structural carbohydrates when fruit availability was low. Despite their diverse diets and changes related to food availability, females actively regulated food intake to converge daily on a similar nutrient intake (grand mean of 637 kcal, with 108 kcal from protein, 149 kcal from lipid, 88 kcal from structural carbohydrates, and 293 kcal from non-structural carbohydrates, N=24). Thus, considering a multidimensional nutritional niche, I characterized their feeding behavior at two levels: they were both food composition generalists and nutrient intake specialists. Blue monkeys showed a nutritional strategy on two different temporal scales: 1) daily protein prioritization and 2) long term non-protein energy (NPE; i.e. lipid + carbohydrate energy) to available protein (P) balancing. On a daily basis, protein intake (by kcal) showed the least amount of variation (by coefficient of variation) and subjects consumed similar amounts of protein, regardless of potential influences from environmental, social or physiological factors. Females allowed more variation in daily ratio of non-protein energy to protein (NPE:P), taking advantage of high NPE foods like fruit. They allowed higher NPE:P ratios when fruit was a larger proportion of their diet and when they spent less time in near-natural forest. There was no evidence that reproductive demand or dominance rank affected protein intake or NPE:P balance. Dominance rank also did not predict deviation (absolute or directional) from mean protein intake or mean NPE:P ratio. On a long term basis (i.e. over the 8 months of data collection), all subjects tightly balanced cumulative NPE:P intake, regardless of dominance rank. This long-term pattern in all 24 subjects suggests that it a species-typical strategy. However, lower ranking females ate more unique food items per day than higher ranking females. Varying daily dietary breadth may allow females to cope with social constraints while feeding, such that dominance rank had no effect on nutritional strategies. Further, the prevalence of NPE:P balancing in most nutritional ecology studies of primates suggests that the diversity of feeding strategies within this order of mammals may have evolved to allow them to adhere to that particular nutrient balance, though the rule of compromise (e.g. protein versus NPE prioritization) and the exact ratio balanced may differ by population or species. Blue monkeys regularly used human-modified habitats and ate considerable amounts of the non-natural foods found there (and elsewhere in the forest). Non-natural foods were directly derived from humans or human activity (e.g. via scavenging from trash) and exotic (non-native) plants, generally introduced inadvertently or for silviculture. Subjects incorporated a substantial amount of non-natural foods into their diets, with approximately a third of their daily calories derived from non-natural foods. Subjects in the group with the most access to human-modified habitat used non-natural foods the most extensively. Further, subjects in two groups showed clear preference for human-modified habitat while members of the third group used habitat types in proportion to their occurrence in the home range. Human-modified habitat, and the non-natural foods found within, may have been readily used because many non-natural foods provided similar access to nutritional space as natural foods. Some non-natural foods, like oil palm fruit and ugali (cooked maize flour), represented energetically dense food resources, which also proved attractive. Regardless of whether subjects fed primarily on natural or non-natural foods, they consumed similar amounts of daily protein. This prioritization of protein, coupled with the fact that females had higher NPE:P ratios when feeding mostly on non-natural foods, indicated that blue monkeys capitalized on non-natural resources to increase NPE intake as long as they were able to consume a threshold amount of protein. What remains unclear though, is whether there are adaptive advantages associated with the ability to consume diets of variable NPE:P ratios. Overall, blue monkeys in Kakamega Forest are very flexible feeders, perhaps to a greater degree than previously acknowledged. Subjects were able to consume a diverse diet of hundreds of species-specific food items, to shift their diet in response to changes in food availability, to capitalize on food resources found in different habitat types, to take advantage of non-natural food resources, and to tolerate a wide range of NPE:P ratios in daily diets. Further, on a nutritional level, they successfully navigated potential stressors from the physiological demands of reproduction and dominance rank to adhere to a particular nutritional strategy. Flexible behavior, such as spreading out during feeding or varying dietary breadth, indicates how blue monkeys may use particular feeding strategies to arrive at a common nutrient intake target. Despite daily fluctuations in NPE:P ratio that varied with environmental and dietary factors, all subjects were able to consume a consistent daily amount of protein and prioritized its intake above all other nutritional components. Finally, their tight adherence to long term NPE:P balancing suggested that they followed a nutritional strategy that operated on both daily and longer timescales. Primates are increasingly threatened from habitat loss, degradation and other human-disturbances. There is growing awareness that some species, like blue monkeys, may be able to persist in regenerating human-modified landscapes, where they regularly and readily use non-natural food resources. More species- and habitat-specific nutritional studies are needed to predict population-level responses to varying degrees of habitat alteration. The data generated may help us assess the potential value of human-modified habitats that may require protection, as these habitats may contribute to the persistence of primate populations around the globe, especially in novel ecosystems.