Most forage quality models were developed for ruminant nutrition, and may not apply to the horse. This two-part study evaluated the relationship between forage chemical composition and dry matter digestibility (DMD) using an in vitro method with equine feces as the inoculums. The first experiment determined that compared to 48 h of incubation, 72 h of incubation resulted in higher DMD for some forages. As a result of experiment 1, incubations in experiment 2 were conducted using 48 and 72 h incubation periods at 38 degrees C. The second experiment evaluated the effect of chemical composition on DMD. Thirty-one hay samples were used that ranged from 33% to 71% for NDF, 21% to 44% for ADF and 6.7 to 25.6% for CP (all on DMB). There were inverse relationships between ADF and DMD ( r = -0.826 at 48 h; -0.841 at 72 h) and NDF and DMD (r = -0.779 at 48 h; 0.812 at 72 h). There was a positive relationship between CP and DMD (r =0.572 at 48 h; 0.615 at 72 h). Forage chemical composition, particularly ADF and NDF, has potential to predict digestibility of forages by horses.

The objective of these studies was to evaluate the effect of piglet nursing location on weaning weight, and its dependence on essential oil supplementation on sow and piglet performances. Piglets that nursed anterior teat pairs had heavier weaning weights and higher gain for the lactation period. Additionally, piglet birthweight did not impact their overall teat selection and nursing location. These results provide some insight into the biological aspects of sow milk production, and implied that milk yield may vary between teat pairs along the udder line. Supplementation of essential oils (EO) during late gestation and lactation had no effect on sow fecal dry matter (DM), immunoglobulin content of colostrum and milk, but it did increase the lactose content in milk from sows supplemented with EO, with an increase from 5.84% to 5. 97% (P = 0.04). There was an increase in sow weight loss during lactation (P = 0.002), and there was a significant effect on piglet birthweight, with sows supplemented with EO producing heavier piglets at birth, 1.56 kg in EO sows, compared to 1.49 kg in the control (CON) sows (P = 0.03). Overall, piglet weaning weight is impacted by their selected nursing location along the udder line. Supplementation of EO may have limited effects on sow performance, such as fecal dry matter (DM) but may positively impact piglet birthweight. Furthermore, including EO into sow diets during late gestation and lactation can potentially impact the nutrient levels of sow milk.

A group of four captive bobcats (Felis rufus), two males and two females, was observed for 102.67 hours over the period of one year. A pilot study was conducted consisting of a minimum of three separate observations for each daylight hour. The remaining observations were concentrated during the early morning hours immediately after feeding, the time of maximum activity and social interaction.

Protein is an important fraction within bovine milk. This milk protein is not only vital for calf growth and development, but also includes bioactive proteins and peptides that have been shown to enhance the health of animals and humans. Research efforts are focusing on factors, such as nutrition, that can influence the quantity and profile of proteins within the bovine milk proteome. The research outlined herein investigated the impact of diet on the bovine milk proteome. The first experiment examined whether dietary inclusion of grape marc (GM), a condensed tannin (CT) containing by-product from the viticulture industry, could alter the bovine milk proteome through altered nitrogen (N) metabolism. In this experiment, 10 lactating Holstein cows were fed either 2.0 kg dry matter (DM)/ cow/ day of beet pulp: soy hulls in a 50% mixture (control), or 1.5 kg DM/ cow/ day of GM as part of a balanced dairy cow ration for a 28-d trial. Milk samples were obtained for analysis of the high- and low-abundance protein fractions. Skimmed milk samples collected for high-abundance protein analysis were measured using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to identify proteins in the low-abundance protein enriched fraction. Skimmed milk samples collected for low-abundance milk protein analysis were fractionated and enriched to remove higher abundance proteins. Enriched milk samples were then digested and labeled with isobaric tandem mass tags (TMT) prior to protein identification using LC-MS/MS analysis. There were no changes in the high-abundance protein fraction in response to diet; however, 16 of 127 low-abundance proteins were identified at different relative-abundances due to diet (P ≤ 0.05). While there were no alterations in the metabolic or N status of animals due to GM supplementation, the 12% change in the low-abundance milk protein fraction highlighted the potential for dietary alteration of the bovine milk proteome. A second experiment evaluated the inclusion of alternative forage crops (AFC) as a means to alter the bovine milk proteome. In this experiment, both the skimmed milk and milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) protein fractions were included in analysis. Milk samples were collected from 16 lactating Jersey cattle included in a 21-d grazing experiment, where cows were offered one of two diets. The control group (CON, n=8) grazed a grass-legume pasture mixture containing orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), timothy (Phleum pratense), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), and white clover (Trifolium repens). The treatment group (AFC, n=8) grazed a similar base pasture that was strip-tilled with oat (Avena sativa), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), and chickling vetch (Lathyrus sativus) so that the AFC species comprised 10% of the AFC group’s pasture DM intake (DMI). Milk samples were collected for HPLC analysis of the high abundance milk proteins, and LC-MS/MS analysis of the low abundance protein enriched skim milk fraction and MFGM-associated protein fraction. Cows that grazed pastures containing AFC had higher αs1-CAS content (P = 0.005), and higher relative-abundances of 7 low-abundance proteins within the skim milk and MFGM fractions (P ≤ 0.05). While it is plausible that the inclusion of AFC in pasture increased nutrient availability to the mammary gland, the specific mechanisms that could have caused the shifts observed remain unclear. Further investigation is necessary to fully understand the role of diet and the milk protein profile.

In recent years, economic, social, and environmental factors have encouraged higher forage diets to be fed to dairy cows. Consequently, a better understanding of both the chemical and physical properties of dietary forage fiber is needed. Undigested neutral detergent fiber after 240 hours of fermentation (uNDF240) is the fiber residue remaining after 240 hours of in vitro fermentation and has only recently been defined. Physically effective neutral detergent fiber (peNDF) was defined about two decades ago and is the fraction of dietary fiber with a particle size (i.e., ≥1.18-mm screen) that stimulates chewing behavior, forms the rumen digesta mat, and is resistant to passage from the rumen. To-date, the relationship between these two dietary fiber measurements has not been evaluated. The overall goal of this thesis research was to quantitate the relationship between dietary uNDF240 and peNDF on feed intake, lactational performance, chewing behavior, and the ruminal environment of lactating Holstein dairy cows. The focal study (Chapter 2) investigated the effects of dietary uNDF240 (low or high) and peNDF (low or high) on lactating dairy cows. The four treatments were: 1) low uNDF240, low peNDF (8.8%, 20.1%; LULP; 2) low uNDF240, high peNDF (8.9%, 21.8%; LUHP); 3) high uNDF240, low peNDF (11.4%, 18.6%; HULP); and 4) high uNDF240, high peNDF (11.6%, 22.0%; HUHP). Additionally, a new descriptive term, physically effective uNDF240 (peuNDF240) was calculated as the product of the dietary physical effectiveness factor (pef; % of particles retained on ≥1.18-mm screen with dry sieving) and uNDF240 as a percentage of dry matter (DM). This new descriptive term aimed to integrate the effects of dietary particle size and NDF (in)digestibility. The dietary peuNDF240 concentrations were 5.4% (LULP), 5.8% (LUHP), 5.9% (HULP), and 7.1% (HUHP). The LULP treatment resulted in greater dry matter intake (DMI) and energy corrected milk (ECM), as well as more favorable chewing behavior (i.e., no effect on rumination but less time spent eating) in comparison to the HUHP diet. When comparing the same two treatments, total volatile fatty acid concentration was greater, mean ruminal pH was lower, and NDF turnover rate tended to be greater for the LULP treatment. Milk fat percentage was influenced by dietary uNDF240 with the high uNDF240 diets having an elevated percentage. The LUHP and HULP treatments often did not differ in animal response variables, such as DMI, ECM, mean ruminal pH, and chewing behavior, reflecting their similar dietary peuNDF240 concentration. Importantly, by reducing peNDF of the high uNDF240 treatments, DMI increased to an amount similar to the low uNDF240 treatments. Animal responses were consistently different between the LULP and HUHP treatments as expected: the low uNDF240 diet, chopped more finely, encouraged greater DMI than the high uNDF240 diet chopped coarsely. However, the LUHP and HULP diets with similar peuNDF240 often resulted in similar cow responses, even though the peuNDF240 was obtained differently for each diet. With these diets fed to high-producing cows, it appears that the integration of particle size and indigestibility of fiber using a peuNDF240 measurement is highly related to DMI, ECM yield, chewing behavior, and ruminal environment. In the future, this relationship may prove useful in predicting DMI of lactating dairy cows fed a range of diets differing in uNDF240 and particle size.

Thirty-six multiparous Holstein cows were assigned to one of three dietary levels of lasalocid· 0, 180, or 360 mg/hd/d in a completely randomized design Cows were assigned to treatments I wk postcalving and remained on treatment until II wk postcalving Basal diets were composed of ground corn, alfalfa hay, alfalfa haylage, corn silage, and soybean meal, fortified with vitamins and minerals as needed. All ingredients were ground and fed as a total mixed ration Daily rations were fed in two equal portions at 0500 and I 700 h at a rate to allow a 5- 10% refusal. Daily measurements included milk production and dry matter intake (OM 1). Milk composition (fat, protein, and somatic ii cells) was analyzed twice per week on Tuesdays and Fridays. Cow body weight (BW) and visual body condition were measured weekly. Production during previous lactation was used as a covariate in analyzing the data. Although milk production was not affected by dietary treatment, lasalocid tended to increase daily milk production by approximately 2.5 kg/d (P 13) at both the 180 and 360 mg/hd/d levels Percent milk fat and protein were not afl'ected by dietary lasalocid (P 84 and 78, respectively). Somatic cell count of the milk was not affected by dietary lasalocid (/' 17). Dietary lasalocid reduced DMI by approximately I 5 kg/d at both the 180 and 360 mg/hdld levels (P .02). At the 180 and 360 mg/hdld levels, lasalocid increased amount of milk produced per kg of DM consumed by 16 kg (I' 08). either BW (P 89) nor body condition (P = 90) were affected by dietary lasalocid at either level. No effect of treatments was observed on blood metabolites Glucose, nonesterified fatty acids, P-hydroxybutyrate, and cholesterol all tell within the normal ranges of blood serum.

High levels of fish mean cannot be used in chick diets in the United States because of the relatively high cost as compared to soybean meal. In certain areas or countries where large amounts of fish meal are produced, it may be economically feasible to use fish meal as the major protein supplement in the poultry rations. Feed consumed by poultry must provide most of the materials the birds need for growth or to produce eggs. Those who formulate feed must select ingredients and combine them in proportions which will allow the bird to grow or produce eggs at the lowest possible cost. Fish meal is a good source of essential amino acids. Numerous studies during the past several decades have demonstrated the value of fish meal as a source of unidentified growth factors, essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and energy. The nutritive value of commercially produced fish meal showed great variation when investigated by the protein quality index method. The fish species used, the parts of fish used, amount of heating, fat removal, and duration of storage significantly affected the nutritional value of fish meals. The methods of processing and fractionation of the original fish carcass are different for different species. For example, menhaden meal is made from whole fish, but tuna fish meal is made from cannery scraps that contain relatively less muscle and more bone and skin than does menhaden meal. Meal high in bone and skin may be inferior to meals high in muscle protein. Meals high in oil may be poorer than those lower in oil if the meals are not processed and stored properly. The experiments reported in this thesis were conducted to determine if the three fish meals studied varied in the amino acid levels and pattern provided to the chick and to determine if these differences explain differences in the feeding value of these meals. Studies were conducted with two lots of Canadian herring meal, a tuna meal, and Peruvian fish meal probably made from anchovy.

I investigated the pollination ecology ofHesperidanthus suffrutescens, an endangered Utah shrub, as well as the effects that road dust and local plant density may have on successful reproduction. The breeding system study included four pollination treatments to determine the degree of self-compatibility. Flower visitors were collected and probable pollinators were identified. To determine the effects of road dust on reproduction, I measured dust deposition, plant size, and reproduction in plots of increasing distance from an unpaved road. I also measured dust effects on pollination success and stomatal conductance. I determined the number of individuals per plot and the relative isolation of individuals, and measured their reproductive success to determine any significant effects. Reproduction was measured as total fruit set per plant as well as estimates of total plant seeds and plant seed weight (mg). The results of the pollination treatments and the identity of pollinators are described in Chapter 2. Both autogamy and geitonogamy (selfing treatments) produced substantially and significantly fewer fruits, seeds, and seeds per fruit than xenogamy (outcrossing treatment). Additionally, outcrossed flowers produced significantly more fruits, seeds, and seeds per fruit than did open control flowers with no difference in mean seed weight. In total, 77 flower visitors were collected over the course of the study. Probable pollinators include severalAndrena,Halictus, andDialictusbees. The effects of road dust on the reproductive success ofH. suffrutescensare discussed in Chapter 3. Dust deposition decreased with increased distance from the road and was significantly correlated with decreased fruit set for plants of a given size. Other reproductive metrics showed the same negative patterns although not significantly. The results suggest that dust may disrupt pollination and affect the physiology of plants, resulting in decreased reproduction. Dust deposition did not decrease pollination success of dusted flowers but did negatively impact stomatal conductance of leaves. The main effects of patch size and relative isolation on reproductive success are discussed in Chapter 4. Both patch size and relative isolation had no significant impacts on reproductive success. Increased patch size did indicate negative patterns on reproductive metrics, although not significantly. Similarly, increased isolation indicated increased reproductive success, although not significantly.

Ranchers, farmers, land managers, and resource management agencies have been plagued with various types of invasive weeds for decades, ultimately affecting millions of acres of viable wildlife habitat, grazing, and recreational opportunities. Invasive weeds often have nutritional contexts that negatively affect animals in some way, increasing the incentive to avoid consuming it by various animal species and domestic livestock. With the current amount of land infested with this weed, and the limited knowledge of the reason for avoidance, the underlying causes of livestock avoidance require in-depth and fundamental understanding. In my MS program, I sought to explore the relationship of plant and herbivore interactions in regards to grazing, animal diet selection through the use of supplementation, along with understanding the chemical compounds that cause avoidance of medusahead by domestic animals. This research will help us better understand the reasoning behind grazing avoidance and preference, and provide further understanding and management approaches using livestock as an alternative management tool in hopes of creating sustainable ecosystems with complementary benefits for soils, plants, animals, and land managers.

This study was performed to determine the spectral signatures of deer and their natural background elements for censusing purposes. Consideration was given to atmospheric transmittance, acceptable flying weather, and terrain. Possible spectral bands between 0.3 and 14.0 μm were obtained (over a pathlength of 1500 feet at an altitude of 5000 feet) based upon atmospheric transmittance using the LOWTRAN 3B computer program. They are: 0.30 - 1.33, 1.49 - 1.79, 2.00 - 2.50, 3.00 - 3.16, 3.38 - 4.10, 4.59 - 5.05, and 8.00 - 13.33 μm, for transmittance greater than 75%. Weather conditions are favorable for flying and taking data on the average of 2 days per week (in areas near Salt Lake City) throughout the winter months. Measurements were obtained of the spectral reflectance and spectral emissivity of deer hide, sands, soils, sage brush, and other natural winter habitat elements. The results of these measurements indicate that all the biological samples tested emit blackbody radiation; that is, the emissivity is approximately unity and there are no unique spectral signatures. The reflected spectra in the region 0.5 to 1.1 μm contains considerable unique spectra, including chlorophyll absorption at 0.66 μm, that might be useful in de signing a multi spectral classifier.