This study investigated changes in maximal jump performance in response to match play induced fatigue. During six sets of tournament match play, seven National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics women’s volleyball athletes accumulated a mean Player Load of 758.6±216.89 au (measured via microsensor accelerometry), and mean session rate of perceived exertion of 1184.1±363.2. Repeated measures ANOVAs were used to identify change with Hedge’s g effect sizes used to assess magnitude of change. Short recovery stress scale results indicated elevated stress (ES=1.401 to 1.588) and decreased recovery (ES = -1.358 to -1.848) 24 hours post-match, trending towards baseline 48 hours post-match. Countermovement jump height (CMJH) decreased immediately post-match (p<0.01, ES= -0.216), partially recovered Post24 (p=0.109, ES=0.130), and fully recovered by Post48 (p < 0.01, ES=0.216). It was concluded that match-play may have contributed to the observable decline in post-match maximal jump performance, and CMJH testing may be an effective assessment of acute neuromuscular status.

Low energy availability (LEA) has been identified as the underlying etiology of the Female Athlete Triad and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) syndrome. The term energy availability (EA) describes the amount of dietary energy intake (EI) that is remaining to support physiological function after accounting for the energy cost of exercise. Exposure to LEA stimulates metabolic adaptations that may disrupt certain biological systems, such as endocrine function, and impair sports performance. Controlled laboratory research has shown suppression of bone formation biomarkers with accelerated rates of bone resorption after only three to five days of LEA in active females. Correcting LEA by increasing EI or decreasing exercise energy expenditure (EEE) may not be feasible for all athletes and additional approaches for protecting bone health during LEA require further investigation. Recent evidence suggests that brief bouts of high-impact exercise attenuate the increased rate of bone resorption in females with diet-induced LEA. However, it is unknown whether similar exercises have a protective effect on bone health when LEA is induced through a combination of dietary restriction and exercise. A gap also remains in the understanding of how EA fluctuates throughout the athletic season and what potential effect that has on body composition and performance outcomes. To address these gaps, we conducted two studies to investigate the interactions of EA, bone health, and body composition. The first investigation employed a randomized crossover design in which female runners underwent two, five-day experimental conditions of LEA consisting of dietary restriction and daily running (EA = 15 kcal·kg FFM-1·day-1). During one of the experimental conditions, participants also completed a bout of 50 jumping exercises daily. Serum markers of bone resorption (C-terminal cross-linking telopeptide of type 1 collagen [CTX-I]), bone formation (N-terminal propeptide of type 1 procollagen [PINP]), and hormonal profiles were compared between baseline and post-intervention using linear mixed effects modeling. We hypothesized that daily high-impact exercise would have a positive effect on bone by attenuating the rise in bone resorption. In contrast to our hypothesis, bone resorption marker CTX-I increased following both LEA conditions (+12%, P=0.004) with no difference in the response between the jumping and non-jumping conditions. Bone formation was not suppressed following either LEA condition. Concentrations of free triiodothyronine (T3), insulin-like growth factor-1, leptin, and insulin decreased in response to five days of LEA independent of condition (P<0.05); however, when taking into account condition, the decrease in free T3 was only statistically significant following the LEA condition without jumping (-27%, P=0.022, Cohen's d=0.87). Our findings suggest that high-impact jumping exercises are not an effective countermeasure to protect bone health during short-term LEA in female runners who continue to run routinely. In a second study, we conducted a longitudinal, observational study in collegiate male soccer players to investigate seasonal changes in EA and body composition. Measurements of EA, body composition, and sports performance were assessed at the start and end of the non-championship Spring athletic season. We hypothesized that EA would be positively associated with changes in body composition at the end of the three-month season. Despite most athletes reporting desires to gain total and/or lean body mass, no changes in EA or body composition were detected at the end of the season compared to the start. Furthermore, sports performance and bone density improved across the season regardless of individual changes in EA. These results indicate EA of collegiate male soccer players during the Spring season is sufficient to maintain current body composition and improve sports performance, but insufficient to support total and/or lean body mass gains. / Doctor of Philosophy / Adequate energy intake (EI) is essential for fueling athletic performance and supporting general health. Low energy availability (LEA) occurs when EI is insufficient to meet the energy demands of both exercise and basic health functions. Athletes with LEA may experience various repercussions such as suppressed metabolism, hormonal changes, and impaired bone health. Training adaptations may also be impaired by LEA, thereby affecting athletic performance. Daily high-impact jumping exercises have been shown to have a positive effect on bone health in women, even during periods of LEA caused by dietary restriction. However, this type of exercise intervention has not been tested in combination with other forms of daily exercise in women exposed to a controlled period of LEA. The purpose of these studies was to examine how exercise and EA affect bone health and body composition in recreational and competitive athletes. The first study investigated the effects of daily jumping exercises on markers of bone formation and breakdown during five days of LEA in female runners. The completion of 50 jumping exercises each day along with running on a treadmill was not shown to provide additional bone-protective benefits during LEA compared to running alone, as shown by similar rates of bone breakdown observed under both conditions. The second study investigated whether changes occur in EA or body composition in male collegiate soccer players over an athletic season. Despite most of the athletes reporting desires to gain weight or muscle during the season, there were no differences in body composition or EA at the end of the season compared to the start. However, there were significant improvements in aerobic fitness, relative strength, and bone density throughout the season.

In a survey sent to the senior women's administrator at all three hundred and thirty (N= 330) NCAA Division I intercollegiate athletic departments across the nation, this study examines the differences between Division I athletic department's having an eating disorder (ED) policy and those that that do not and the variables that lead to those differences. Over a 12-month period, from March 2004 through March 2005, one variable that this study addresses is whether having an ED policy influences the number of reported incidences. Likewise, another variable is whether education on ED for the student-athletes influences the number of reported incidences. Lastly, the final variable investigates those intercollegiate athletic departments that have other policies for their student-athletes such as alcohol, tobacco, and drug, and whether this influences having an ED policy. As the following research indicates, ED primarily affects the female gender. In addition, although ED are deemed a medical issue in which the head athletic trainer or the team physician is likely to work closely in treating the athlete, the senior women's administrator is chosen to complete the survey because of their gender, and this study focuses more on the policy itself, from an administrative prospective. For those universities surveyed who do not have such a policy, this paper examines the need, along with the legal responsibilities that intercollegiate athletic programs have toward their student-athletes concerning ED. / Ed. D.

American football is one of the most popular sports in the United States. However, in comparison to other mainstream sports such as soccer and rugby, there is limited literature using scientific principles and theory to examine the most appropriate ways to monitor the sport. This serves as a barrier to American football practitioners in their development and implementation of evidence-based sport preparation programs. Therefore, the primary aim of this line of research (i.e., dissertation) is to illustrate the efficacy of commonly used athlete monitoring tools within the sport of American collegiate football, while proposing a systematic framework to guide the development of an athlete monitoring program. This aim was achieved through a series of studies with the following objectives: 1) to quantify the physical demands of American collegiate football practice by creating physiological movement profiles through the use of integrated microtechnology metrics and heart rate indices, 2) to determine the positional differences in the physical practice demands of American collegiate football athletes, 3) to examine which integrated microtechnology metrics might be used to most efficiently monitor the training load of American collegiate football athletes, 4) to demonstrate the suitability of using the countermovement jump (CMJ) to assess training adaptations in American collegiate football athletes through examining weekly changes in CMJ performance over the course of two 4-week periodized training blocks (8 weeks total), and 5) to examine the effect of acute fatigue on CMJ performance in American football athletes. The first study from this line of research quantified the physical demands of American collegiate football by position groups and found significant differences in both running based and non-running based training load metrics. In addition, the first study utilized a principal component analysis to determine 5 'principal' components that explain approximately 81% of the variance within the data. The second study utilized a univariate analysis and found significant changes in CMJ performance due the effect of time with significant improvements in CMJ 'strategy' variables over the training period. Finally, the third study used effects sizes to illustrate a larger magnitude of change in CMJ 'strategy' variables than CMJ 'output' variables due to effect of acute fatigue. Results from studies 2 and 3 suggest the importance of monitoring CMJ strategy variables when monitoring training adaptations and fatigue in American collegiate football athletes. This line of research provides practitioners with a systematic framework through which they can develop and implement evidence-based sport preparation programs within their own organizational context. In addition, this line of research provides practitioners with recommendations for which metrics to monitor when tracking training load in American collegiate football using integrated microtechnology. Finally, this line of research demonstrates how to assess training adaptations and fatigue using the CMJ within the sport of American collegiate football, while providing an empirical base through which the selection of CMJ variables can take place. Collectively, this line of research uses scientific principles and theory to extend the current literature in American collegiate football, while providing practitioners with a guide to athlete monitoring within the sport. / Doctor of Philosophy / American football is one the most popular sports in the United States. Despite its popularity, there is limited research using scientific principles and theories to examine ways to most effectively monitor the sport. Broadly, athlete monitoring refers to the process of providing informational feedback from the athlete to practitioners. This allows practitioners to make decisions informed by data. Therefore, this line of research (i.e. dissertation) aimed to use a variety of commonly used athlete monitoring tools to monitor American collegiate football athletes, while proposing a framework to guide in the development of an athlete monitoring program. This line of research consisted of a series of 3 studies. In study #1, it was found that integrated microtechnology units and heart rate sensors could be used to determine the physical demands of American collegiate football practice, as well as differences in the physical demands of practice by position group. In addition, a set of 5 training load constructs were found through which training load in American collegiate football athletes may be appropriately monitored. In study #2, it was found that countermovement jump (CMJ) strategy variables indicating how the jump occurred may provide more insight into strength and power training adaptations than CMJ output variables that indicate what occurred as a result of the jump in this highly trained athletic population. Finally, in study #3, it was found that CMJ strategy variables may be more sensitive to acute fatigue from a football-specific training session than CMJ output variables in American collegiate football athletes. Collectively, this research suggest that integrated microtechnology units, heart rate sensors, and the CMJ using a force testing platform may be used to monitor American collegiate football athletes. Moreover, this research suggests which variables to utilize when monitoring this population using these tools through the proposed athlete monitoring framework.

Background: Calciferol (vitamin D) is an essential nutrient that can be synthesized in the skin upon exposure to ultraviolet-B (UVB) light, or obtained through dietary and supplement sources. Traditionally known for its role in bone metabolism, vitamin D is currently described as a pleiotropic hormone with genomic and non-genomic roles in most body tissues. Clinical practice guidelines related to vitamin D are inconsistent and controversial. The purpose of this dissertation was to describe current patterns of vitamin D-related clinical care in a variety of settings, and to evaluate the impact of vitamin D supplements on the health and performance of collegiate athletes, a group with high prevalence of low vitamin D (LVD). Methods: This dissertation consists of five studies: 1) a scoping review of the health services literature related to clinical management of vitamin D; 2) a retrospective analysis of clinical care following non-indicated vitamin D testing using electronic health record (EHR) data from a regional health system; 3) a survey study to assess vitamin D-related practices among National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I programs; 4) an open clinical trial to evaluate the efficacy of a specific vitamin D supplement protocol in treating collegiate basketball athletes with LVD; and 5) a randomized, double-blind clinical trial to determine health and performance effects of vitamin D supplements in collegiate swimmers participating in fall season training. Results: Substantial inconsistency in vitamin D-related care was observed throughout the first three studies. Exponential increases in vitamin D testing and treatment, and associated costs, were identified in the U.S. and several other countries. A high proportion of this care was considered non-indicated (i.e., counter to professional guidelines). A lower rate of non-indicated vitamin D-related services was conducted within the health system we studied, but a cascade of low value services followed non-indicated vitamin D testing. Vitamin D testing was regularly performed by more than 65% of NCAA programs. In basketball athletes, 10 weeks of daily vitamin D3 supplements (5000 or 10,000 IU based on initial vitamin D status) improved serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D], the common biomarker of vitamin D status. In swimmers, a vitamin D supplement protocol (5,000 IU vitamin D3 daily for 12 weeks) was efficacious in attenuating a seasonal decline in 25(OH)D compared with placebo. Swimmers taking vitamin D supplements also showed greater improvements in strength, power, and fat free mass. In both athlete studies, taking vitamin D supplements was associated with higher free testosterone concentration. Conclusions: The provision of evidence-based care related to vitamin D is complicated by contradictory clinical practice guidelines, resulting in inconsistent and sometimes, non-indicated care. Focused research on specific populations at high-risk for LVD can inform best practices. Our results suggest that taking vitamin D supplements is an efficacious strategy for athletes to improve 25(OH)D, especially when UVB exposure is low, and to enhance strength and power in collegiate swimmers. / Ph.D. / Vitamin D is known as the “sunshine vitamin” since it can be synthesized by the human body when exposed to specific wavelengths of ultraviolet-B (UVB) light. Some foods and dietary supplements also contain vitamin D. A relationship between vitamin D and bone health is well-established, but emerging research has also associated vitamin D status with a number of different diseases and health problems, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, autoimmune conditions, and depression. Unfortunately, this research is currently inconclusive, and healthcare providers’ professional guidelines related to vitamin D are highly variable. Thus, providing evidence-based care related to vitamin D is complicated. This dissertation consists of a series of three research studies that describe healthcare providers’ vitamin D-related care considering the uncertain landscape, and two research studies that explore the role of vitamin D in collegiate athletes. We chose athletes since a high proportion of them have deficient or insufficient vitamin D status, and because some research has shown that this low vitamin D status affects athletic performance. Results of these studies showed that vitamin D-related health services such as blood testing have increased dramatically over the past 15 years, as have costs associated with these services. Opportunities to improve consistency and quality of care were observed in multiple settings. In the athlete studies, a high rate of vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency was observed among basketball athletes, and we identified vitamin D supplement treatment protocol effective in improving vitamin D status. In addition, swimmers who took vitamin D supplements performed better on strength and conditioning tests than those who took placebo supplements. A favorable relationship between testosterone concentrations and vitamin D status was shown in both basketball athletes and swimmers. Continuing to conduct research focused on specific populations can help healthcare providers develop consistent, high quality, evidence-based care related to vitamin D.

Syftet med föreliggande uppsats är att undersöka hurdan textgenre en hemsida är, vilken funktion hemsidor har vid konstruktionen av ett personligt varumärke och hur idrottare brandar sig själva på sina hemsidor. I uppsatsen studeras två elitidrottare, Teemu Selänne och Tero Pitkämäki, samt deras hemsidor. I studien används en textanalytisk metod.   Resultaten visar att deras hemsidor skiljer sig från andra hemsidor genom att de består av många olika texttyper och är mer visuella. Vidare kunde man observera att hemsidorna är relevanta för idrottarens varumärke. Hemsidorna ger en positiv bild av idrottaren, till fördel för denne. Samarbete mellan sponsorer och idrottaren syns och blir en del av idrottarens varumärke. I Selännes fall kan man säga att han återbrandar sig efter sin elitidrottarkarriär. En återkommande symbol är ’8’. Det framgår också att Selänne både är en beundrad person och en vanlig människa, vilket tillsammans med hans positiva personlighet blir hans varumärke. Varumärket för Pitkämäki som idrottare består av den österbottniska bakgrunden, ett långvarigt och stabilt sponsorsamarbete samt personligheten, som är anspråkslös men hårt arbetande. / The purpose of the study was to establish what kind of text genre a home page is, which functions home pages have as constructors of personal brands, and how athletes brand themselves on their home pages. In the essay two elite athletes, Teemu Selänne and Tero Pitkämäki and their home pages, were studied. A text analysis method was used in the study. The results showed that homepage as a genre seems to differ from other text genres since it consists of many different text types parts and forms a varied visual entity. The homepages presented a significant relationship with the athletes’ brands. Homepages are thus for the benefit of the athlete. A collaboration between an athlete and a sponsor may offer much and it can become an integrated part of the athlete’s brand. In his homepages Selänne is re-branding himself, after he has finished his elite athlete career. The repetition of the number and symbol ‘8’, a combination of signs of admiration and the man on the street, as well Selänne’s positive personality together make up his athlete’s brand. Tero Pitkämäki’s brand consists of his Ostrobothnian background, a strong sponsor collaboration and a personality which is modest but hardworking.

Title: An athlete as a subject of the international bussines and the proces of the price building Objectives: My objectives for this Theses is to work on the the problematics of international transfer of athletes from club to club in soccer and ice hockey; and also evaluation of each aspect of the transfer, athletes values and their market price. Metods: In making of this Theses I used a method of description and theoretic reflection. To get more information I used the method of an interview. Results: Theses contains of information gathered from available literature connected with mentioned problematics along with information collected from my interviews with experts in sport industry. They together give us a new better way of explaining main principles of the "athlete transfer market". In my theses I am taking a closer look at all the factors of the "transfer price" of an athlete as well as the "price building module", especially its use in practice. The obtained benefit from my theses is a comprehensive view on the athlete transfers and the way of building their price. Key words: soccer, ice hockey, athlete pricing, value of and athlete, transfer price, price. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

Within organizational psychology, previous research has shown that there is a relationship between burnout on team-level and individual team members’ burnout, but little is known if this contagiousness of burnout is also relevant within sport contexts. Therefore, the first aim of the present study was to examine the effect of perceived teammate burnout on athletes perceptions of their own burnout. Furthermore, previous research has suggested that highquality coach-athlete relationship has several positive outcomes for the athlete. Recently, researchers have found evidence that a high-quality coach-athlete relationship is linked with less symptoms of burnout in athletes. Therefore, the second aim was to investigate whether a high-quality coach-athlete relationship can mediate the relationship between perceived teammate burnout and individual burnout. Male and female athletes (N=102) performing five different competitive team sports at different levels participated in a cross-sectional study and completed questionnaires measuring individual athlete burnout, perceptions of teammates’ burnout and the quality of perceived coach-athlete relationship. The mediation regression analysis showed that the regression between perceived teammate burnout and individual burnout was significant. No mediation effect of quality of coach-athlete relationship was found when applying a Sobel test. The findings support the preliminary research on burnout contagiousness within the field of sport and to further examine the relationship between quality of coach-athlete relationship and athlete burnout more research is encouraged. / Inom organisationspsykologi har tidigare forskning visat att det finns en relation mellan utbrändhet på gruppnivå och individuell gruppmedlems utbrändhet, men det finns lite forskning om denna smittsamhet av utbrändhet också gäller inom idrottssammanhang. Därav var första syftet med föreliggande studie att undersöka effekten av upplevelsen av lagkamraters utbrändhet på idrottarens upplevelse av egen utbrändhet. Forskning har vidare visat att en högkvalitativ tränare-idrottare relation har flera positiva utfall för idrottaren. Nyligen har forskare funnit bevis att en högkvalitativ tränare-idrottare relation är kopplat till mindre symtom av utbrändhet hos idrottare. Därmed var andra syftet att undersöka huruvida en högkvalitativ tränare-idrottare relation kan mediera relationen mellan upplevelsen av utbrändhet hos lagkamrater och individuell utbrändhet. Manliga och kvinnliga idrottare (N = 102) från fem olika tävlande lagsporter på olika nivåer deltog i tvärsnittsstudien. De fick fylla i frågeformulärer som avser mäta individuell utbrändhet, upplevelsen av lagkamraters utbrändhet och kvalitén på den upplevda tränare-idrottare relationen. Mediator- och regressionsanalyser visade att regressionen mellan upplevelsen av lagkamraters utbrändhet och individuell utbrändhet var signifikant. Ingen medierande effekt av kvalitén på den upplevda tränare-idrottare relationen hittades med Sobel-test. Resultaten stödjer den preliminära forskning om smittsamhet av utbrändhet inom idrott och att ytterligare undersöka relationen mellan kvalitén på den upplevda tränare-idrottare relationen och individuell utbrändhet uppmuntras.

Effective leadership is a concept shown to be important for successful team performance in the fields of business, education, and sport. In sport, the role of the athlete leader has been under-examined and specifically, how coaching behaviors can affect athlete leader behaviors and how various leadership models (e.g., trait, behavioral, situational) relate to the athlete leader role has never been studied. The present study examined how autocratic, democratic, and collaborative coaching styles affect the athlete leader behavior preferences of athletes of different genders and sport types. Three coach scenarios reflecting the three aforementioned coaching styles were created so that athletes could imagine that they were coached by the individual presented in the scenario and then rate what type of athlete leader behaviors that they would prefer given the style of the coach that they read about. Results showed that the coach scenarios failed to have a significant impact; however, significant differences were discovered between men and women and between individual and team sport athletes on variables measuring preferred performance/task, relationship, motivation, and representation behaviors. Data were gathered on the style of athletes' current coach and this variable also produced significant differences for such behaviors as resolving conflict, providing positive reinforcement, and acting respectfully towards others. In addition, exploratory analyses showed that athletes who hold different leadership positions prefer different athlete leader behaviors. The current study seemed to offer concrete evidence on how coaching style can affect athlete leader preferences and how the athlete leader role can be explained by trait, behavioral, and situational leadership theories; however, future studies will have to further explore the impact that a coach's style can have on the behavior of athlete leaders as well as analyzing the relationship between athlete leaders and teammates utilizing the transformational leadership approach.

The impact of athlete activism online remains understudied in academic scholarship. To gain a better understanding for fan response to athlete activism online, this study examines the patterns in perception and response among sports fans with respect to politically-charged content posted online by professional athletes. The purpose of this study is to use this understanding of fan response to help athletes and their representatives manage fan reaction to athletes’ politically-charged content. By examining fan response to politically-charged content, this study suggests principles for eliciting positive impact, fostering open discourse, and promoting awareness through social media. Patterns in perception and response among sports fans with respect to politically-charged content posted online by professional athletes were examined through in-depth interviews conducted with sports fans between the ages of 18 and 30 who follow the profiles of professional athletes on social media. An understanding of the potential benefits and drawbacks of athletes’ use of social media for social movements has been gained through an analysis of the emergent themes among perception and response patterns revealed by study participants. The emergent themes of this study inform recommendations for professional athletes posting politically-charged content online. The findings of this study suggest that athletes who post politically-charged content online should do so with their goals and audience in mind. Knowing their goals as well as their audience grants athletes the ability to frame their content accordingly, rendering them more likely to receive positive responses to the politically-charged content they post. Based on the findings of this study, athletes who frame politically-charged content as a narrative highlighting their lived experience and employing appeals to emotion and humor yield the most positive responses from otherwise uninterested or hostile fans. The insights gained from this study stand to fill the gap in existing literature surrounding athlete activism online.