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Homelessness is a major social problem in the United States and this nation has the largest number of homeless women. Minority women appear to be more affected than other individuals. Specifically, they are more vulnerable, impoverished, and disenfranchised than all other groups in the nation. These factors affect their emotional well-being and ability to move toward and achieve sustainability. Particularly, African-American women are disproportionately represented in the homeless population, yet they have not been adequately examined in research studies and there are minimal empirical studies that focus on homeless African-American women. Beck's cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and Weiner's attribution theory provided the theoretical foundation for this study. The purpose of this quantitative research was to investigate whether the length of time African-American women are homeless and their attribution style are associated with symptoms of depression. The data were obtained by administering a demographic questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), and the Attributional Style Questionnaire-revised (ASQ-revised) to 70 African-American women living in a shelter and 2 transitional living centers in Charlotte, North Carolina. Data were analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression. The findings revealed no significant relationship between length of time homeless and depression or between attribution style and length of time homeless. There were no moderation effects. However, there was a significant positive relationship between attribution style and depression. The implications for positive social change include influencing polices pertaining to managing depressive symptoms of homeless African-American women to increase their chances of becoming re-housed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of hostile attribution style (HAS) on the processes linking job stressors and CWB. Self and peer data were collected via online questionnaires from employed participants recruited from undergraduate classes and non-student employees. Using data from 147 dyads of employees and coworkers, the effects of HAS on three areas were examined: the influence of HAS on the appraisal of psychosocial (incivility, interactional justice, and interpersonal conflict) and nonsocial (organizational constraints and workload) stressors; HAS as a moderator of the link between stressors and CWB; and HAS as mediator of the link between CWB and the individual difference variables of negative affectivity (NA), trait anger, and Machiavellianism. Regarding appraisals, HAS was more strongly related to psychosocial stressors than to workload (nonsocial stressor). However, results regarding the comparisons of the HAS-psychosocial stressor correlations with the HAS-organizational constraints (nonsocial stressor) correlations were mixed. Moreover, contrary to what was hypothesized, correlations of HAS with interpersonal constraints and job context constraints were not significantly different in magnitude. HAS was shown to moderate the relationship between CWB and the stressors of interpersonal conflict and organizational constraints. Individuals high on HAS engaged in more CWB when stressors were high, whereas individuals low on HAS engaged in low levels of CWB overall. HAS partially mediated the relationship between NA and CWB, in addition to the relationship between trait anger and CWB. It fully mediated the relationship between Machiavellianism and CWB. The influence of Machiavellianism on the occupational stress process also was explored. It was expected that high Machiavellians would appraise and respond to stressors in a negative fashion. However, contrary to what was expected, Machiavellianism was positively associated with informational justice and negatively related to incivility and CWB. Furthermore, it was negatively associated with NA and HAS. An alternative explanation for the results regarding Machiavellianism was presented. Although all hypotheses regarding the effects of HAS were partially supported, results of this study were generally demonstrative of the merits of including attributional processes (i.e., hostile attribution style) in CWB research within the occupational stress framework.

The current research, across three studies, examined two social practices that involve processing and responding to others’ emotions, theory of mind (ToM) and empathy, and how they relate to dysphoria and the social impairments associated with dysphoria over time. Mildly depressed, or dysphoric, individuals, have been found to have heightened ToM when identifying others’ emotions, despite reporting widespread social impairments (Harkness et al., 2005). The first study (Chapter 2) examined if and how ToM is a mediator in the relationship between dysphoria and social functioning. Attribution style, specifically the internalizing attribution bias, was hypothesized to play a role. The interaction between ToM and internalizing attribution bias was independently associated with social functioning. For internalizing attributors, higher ToM was related to better social functioning, but no relationship was observed between ToM and social functioning among non-internalizing attributors. The second study (Chapter 3) examined the relationship between ToM and empathy, addressing the debate surrounding cognitive and affective aspects of ToM and empathy. Affective ToM and cognitive empathy both have been described as processes involving cognitive inferences about others’ emotions. Current results supported this link, showing that a specific component of empathy, perspective-taking, was related to ToM. Although ToM was associated with some aspects of empathy, empathy remained a separate construct that includes both cognitive and emotional responding to others’ emotions. Chapter 4 shifted focus to empathy to examine how this social practice relates to dysphoria and social functioning. The last study first examined how empathy relates to dysphoria. Results showed that only personal distress, one component of empathy, was associated with greater dysphoria. The final study also examined if the empathy x emotion regulation interaction mediates the relationship between dysphoria and social functioning. Different patterns were observed for different emotion regulation types. The interaction between maladaptive, but not adaptive, emotion regulation strategies and empathy was correlated directly with social functioning. For individuals with negative cognitive emotion regulation strategies, greater empathy was associated with better social functioning, a relationship not present for individuals who do not use negative cognitive emotion regulation. Finally maladaptive, but not adaptive, emotion regulation significantly predicted social functioning after controlling for dysphoria. / Thesis (Master, Psychology) -- Queen's University, 2008-10-22 15:25:33.573

The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of the effect that attribution style and presenting symptoms has on the self-reported readiness to change of female survivors of childhood sexual abuse. The aim was to demonstrate that the stages of change are a useful concept in understanding how to approach treatment with female child sexual abuse survivors seeking psychotherapy. One factor that influences the effectiveness of psychotherapy is a client's degree of motivation. The concept of "stage of change" has been used as a measure of client motivation. Stage of change consists of four basic stages; precontemplative, contemplative, action, and maintenance. Prior research has demonstrated that assisting clients in transitioning from a lower to a higher stage of change early in psychotherapy can improve outcomes. Assigning clients a "readiness to change" score is a simple method of categorizing their stage of change. There are many variables that could impact a client's readiness to change. The two selected for this study were attributional style and presenting symptoms. The statistical analysis consisted of using correlation to determine the strength of the relationship between readiness to change, overall attribution styles, and presenting symptoms. Multiple regression was used to see how much of the variance in readiness to change could be accounted for by different levels of attributions or symptomatology. No correlation was found between readiness to change and the other variables, although internal attribution style, external attribution style, and symptomatology were all correlated with each other. Likewise, the different levels of attribution and symptomatology did not account for a significant amount of variance in readiness to change. A secondary analysis into the relationship between total attributions endorsed and symptomatology provided evidence that individuals who make more attributions report significantly more presenting symptoms than individuals who make fewer attributions. The conclusions drawn from this study focus on the importance of utilizing client motivation in the initial sessions of therapy, and propose that focusing on reducing the number of attributions made could be more beneficial to clients than helping them move from one attribution style to another.

Einleitung: Fehlgeburten können nachhaltige seelische Folgen für die Betroffenen haben. Ihre Folgen für eine nachfolgende Schwangerschaft sind bislang kaum untersucht worden. Untersuchungsmethoden: In einer prospektiven Längsschnittuntersuchung werden 342 Frauen nach Frühabort (bis 16. Schwangerschaftswoche) jeweils wenige Wochen, 6 und 12 Monate nach dem Schwangerschaftsverlust postalisch über standardisierte Erhebungsinstrumente zu ihren Verarbeitungsmustern befragt. Bei 108 Frauen trat im Untersuchungszeitraum eine neue Schwangerschaft ein, sie wurden jeweils in jedem Schwangerschaftstrimenon befragt. Über standardisierte Symptomskalen werden schwangerschaftsbezogene Ängste, State-Ängste und Trait-Angst (STAI) sowie Depressivität dieser Schwangeren erhoben und mit der Symptomatik von jeweils 69 (1. Trimenon), 82 (2. Trimenon) und 97 (3. Trimenon) anamnestisch nicht durch frühere Schwangerschaftsverluste belasteten Schwangeren verglichen. Ergebnisse: Im ersten Trimenon einer neuen Schwangerschaft sind Frauen nach Frühaborten signifikant stärker belastet durch schwangerschaftsbezogene Ängste und – vor dem Überschreiten des kritischen Zeitpunktes der zurückliegenden Fehlgeburt(en) – auch durch situative Ängste als anamnestisch nicht belastete Schwangere. Sie haben darüber hinaus ein erhöhtes Risiko für Blutungen in der Frühschwangerschaft. Muster einer depressiven und pessimistisch-traurigen Verarbeitung der Fehlgeburt sagen ausgeprägtere Angst- und depressive Symptome im ersten Trimenon einer nachfolgenden Schwangerschaft vorher. Schlussfolgerungen: Frauen nach Frühabort sind hinsichtlich psychischer Befindensstörungen in einer neuen Schwangerschaft besonders gefährdet. Es lassen sich Risikofaktoren bestimmen, anhand derer besonders gefährdete Frauen schon unmittelbar nach der Fehlgeburt erkannt werden und einer entsprechenden Behandlung zugeführt werden können. / Background: It is well known that miscarriages have enduring mental consequences for the persons affected and may also have implications for the course of a new pregnancy. So far, however, not many studies investigated the physical and mental stress of pregnant women with previous miscarriages. Methods: In this study, 342 women who had early miscarriages were interviewed in writing a couple of weeks, half a year and one year after the prenatal loss. 108 of these women became pregnant during the research period and answered further questionnaires in each trimenon of the pregnancy. In addition, the data of a comparative group was collected consisting of 69 (first trimenon), 82 (second trimenon) and 97 (third trimenon) women without any previous miscarriages. The symptoms (anxiety and depression) of any new pregnancy were collected by using standardised data collection instruments and specific methods for recording specific pregnancy-related anxieties, subjective pregnancy problems and complications during the pregnancy. Results: In the first trimenon of a pregnancy, those women who had previous miscarriages are more stressed by pregnancy-related and – before the critical moment of the previous miscarriage – situational (State) anxieties than those women without any anamnesis of miscarriage. Furthermore they show a higher risk of bleedings in early pregnancy. The women''s health during the first trimenon of a new pregnancy can be predicted based on coping processes after the miscarriage. Women who show depressive or pessimistic-anxious coping styles after the prenatal loss, have a higher risk of anxieties and depressive disorders in their new pregnancy. Conclusions: The results are discussed in relation to the care to women after a miscarriage and during a new pregnancy.

This thesis examines attentional and cognitive biases for particular facial expressions in delusion-prone and deluded individuals. The exploration of cognitive biases in delusion-prone individuals provides one means of elucidating psychological processes that might be involved in the genesis of delusions. Chapter 1 provides a brief review of the continuum approach to schizophrenia, and outlines recent theoretical conceptualisations of delusions. The study of schizophrenia phenomena at the symptom level has become a popular method of inquiry, given the heterogeneous phenotypic expression of schizophrenia, and the uncertainty surrounding the existence of a core neuropathology. Delusions are one of the most commonly experienced symptoms of schizophrenia, and have traditionally been regarded as fixed, false beliefs that are pathognomonic of an organic disease process. However, recent phenomenological evidence of delusional ideation in the general population has led to the conceptualisation of delusions as multi-dimensional entities, lying at the extreme end of a continuum from normal through to maladaptive beliefs. Recent investigations of the information processing abnormalities in deluded individuals are reviewed in Chapter 2. This strand of research has revealed evidence of various biases in social cognition, particularly in relation to threat-related material, in deluded individuals. These biases are evident in probabilistic reasoning, attribution style, and attention, but there has been relatively little investigation of cognitive aberrations in delusion-prone individuals. In the present thesis, social-cognitive biases were examined in relation to a standard series of faces that included threat-related (anger, fear) and non-threatening (happy, sad) expressions, in both delusion-prone and clinically deluded individuals. Chapters 3 and 4 present the results of behavioural (RT, affect recognition accuracy) and visual scanpath investigations in healthy participants assessed for level of delusion- proneness. The results indicate that delusion-prone individuals are slower at processing angry faces, and show a general (rather than emotion-specific) impairment in facial affect recognition, compared to non-prone healthy controls. Visual scanpath studies show that healthy individuals tend to direct more foveal fixations to the feature areas (eyes, nose, mouth) of threat-related facial expressions (anger, fear). By contrast, delusion-prone individuals exhibit reduced foveal attention to threat-related faces, combined with �extended� scanpaths, that may be interpreted as an attentional pattern of �vigilance-avoidance� for social threat. Chapters 5 and 6 extend the work presented in Chapters 3 and 4, by investigating the presence of similar behavioural and attentional biases in deluded schizophrenia, compared to healthy control and non-deluded schizophrenia groups. Deluded schizophrenia subjects exhibited a similar delay in processing angry faces, compared to non-prone control participants, while both deluded and non-deluded schizophrenia groups displayed a generalised affect recognition deficit. Visual scanpath investigations revealed a similar style of avoiding a broader range of negative (anger, fear, sad) faces in deluded schizophrenia, as well as a common pattern of fewer fixations with shorter duration, and reduced attention to facial features of all faces in both deluded and non-deluded schizophrenia. The examination of inferential biases for emotions displayed in facial expressions is presented in Chapter 7 in a study of causal attributional style. The results of this study provide some support for a �self-serving� bias in deluded schizophrenia, as well as evidence for an inability to appreciate situational cues when making causal judgements in both delusion-prone and deluded schizophrenia. A theoretical integration of the current findings is presented in Chapter 8, with regard to the implications for cognitive theories of delusions, and neurobiological models of schizophrenia phenomena, more generally. Visual attention biases for threat-related facial expressions in delusion-prone and deluded schizophrenia are consistent with proposals of neural dysconnectivity between frontal-limbic networks, while attributional biases and impaired facial expression perception may reflect dysfunction in a broader �social brain� network encompassing these and medial temporal lobe regions. Strong evidence for attentional biases and affect recognition deficits in delusion-prone individuals implicates their role in the development of delusional beliefs, but the weaker evidence for attributional biases in delusion-prone individuals suggests that inferential biases about others� emotions may be relevant only to the maintenance of delusional beliefs (or that attributional biases for others� emotional states may reflect other, trait-linked difficulties related to mentalising ability). In summary, the work presented in this thesis demonstrates the utility of adopting a single-symptom approach to schizophrenia within the continuum framework, and attests to the importance of further investigations of aberrant social cognition in relation to the development of delusions.

This thesis examines attentional and cognitive biases for particular facial expressions in delusion-prone and deluded individuals. The exploration of cognitive biases in delusion-prone individuals provides one means of elucidating psychological processes that might be involved in the genesis of delusions. Chapter 1 provides a brief review of the continuum approach to schizophrenia, and outlines recent theoretical conceptualisations of delusions. The study of schizophrenia phenomena at the symptom level has become a popular method of inquiry, given the heterogeneous phenotypic expression of schizophrenia, and the uncertainty surrounding the existence of a core neuropathology. Delusions are one of the most commonly experienced symptoms of schizophrenia, and have traditionally been regarded as fixed, false beliefs that are pathognomonic of an organic disease process. However, recent phenomenological evidence of delusional ideation in the general population has led to the conceptualisation of delusions as multi-dimensional entities, lying at the extreme end of a continuum from normal through to maladaptive beliefs. Recent investigations of the information processing abnormalities in deluded individuals are reviewed in Chapter 2. This strand of research has revealed evidence of various biases in social cognition, particularly in relation to threat-related material, in deluded individuals. These biases are evident in probabilistic reasoning, attribution style, and attention, but there has been relatively little investigation of cognitive aberrations in delusion-prone individuals. In the present thesis, social-cognitive biases were examined in relation to a standard series of faces that included threat-related (anger, fear) and non-threatening (happy, sad) expressions, in both delusion-prone and clinically deluded individuals. Chapters 3 and 4 present the results of behavioural (RT, affect recognition accuracy) and visual scanpath investigations in healthy participants assessed for level of delusion- proneness. The results indicate that delusion-prone individuals are slower at processing angry faces, and show a general (rather than emotion-specific) impairment in facial affect recognition, compared to non-prone healthy controls. Visual scanpath studies show that healthy individuals tend to direct more foveal fixations to the feature areas (eyes, nose, mouth) of threat-related facial expressions (anger, fear). By contrast, delusion-prone individuals exhibit reduced foveal attention to threat-related faces, combined with �extended� scanpaths, that may be interpreted as an attentional pattern of �vigilance-avoidance� for social threat. Chapters 5 and 6 extend the work presented in Chapters 3 and 4, by investigating the presence of similar behavioural and attentional biases in deluded schizophrenia, compared to healthy control and non-deluded schizophrenia groups. Deluded schizophrenia subjects exhibited a similar delay in processing angry faces, compared to non-prone control participants, while both deluded and non-deluded schizophrenia groups displayed a generalised affect recognition deficit. Visual scanpath investigations revealed a similar style of avoiding a broader range of negative (anger, fear, sad) faces in deluded schizophrenia, as well as a common pattern of fewer fixations with shorter duration, and reduced attention to facial features of all faces in both deluded and non-deluded schizophrenia. The examination of inferential biases for emotions displayed in facial expressions is presented in Chapter 7 in a study of causal attributional style. The results of this study provide some support for a �self-serving� bias in deluded schizophrenia, as well as evidence for an inability to appreciate situational cues when making causal judgements in both delusion-prone and deluded schizophrenia. A theoretical integration of the current findings is presented in Chapter 8, with regard to the implications for cognitive theories of delusions, and neurobiological models of schizophrenia phenomena, more generally. Visual attention biases for threat-related facial expressions in delusion-prone and deluded schizophrenia are consistent with proposals of neural dysconnectivity between frontal-limbic networks, while attributional biases and impaired facial expression perception may reflect dysfunction in a broader �social brain� network encompassing these and medial temporal lobe regions. Strong evidence for attentional biases and affect recognition deficits in delusion-prone individuals implicates their role in the development of delusional beliefs, but the weaker evidence for attributional biases in delusion-prone individuals suggests that inferential biases about others� emotions may be relevant only to the maintenance of delusional beliefs (or that attributional biases for others� emotional states may reflect other, trait-linked difficulties related to mentalising ability). In summary, the work presented in this thesis demonstrates the utility of adopting a single-symptom approach to schizophrenia within the continuum framework, and attests to the importance of further investigations of aberrant social cognition in relation to the development of delusions.