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New methods and technology are needed to detect biological agents that threaten the health of humans and domestic animals. The bacterium Bacillus anthracis, causal agent of anthrax, has been used as a biological warfare agent. Here, we extend the work of Chinowksy et al. (2007) to the detection of a surrogate of B. anthracis, B. globigii (also known as B. atrophaeus, B. subtilis var. niger, B. subtilis var. subtilis) in a mixed sample containing two different species of Bacillus using a portable surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor (SPIRIT 4.0, Seattle Sensor Systems). Two methods (direct capture and antibody injection) were used to determine the limit of detection for spores of B. globigii and to detect spores of B. globigii in a mixed sample containing at least one other Bacillus spp. Spores of B. globigii were detected on freshly coated sensors (not previously exposed to spores) with direct capture at a minimum concentration of 10^7 spores/mL, and with antibody injection at a concentration of 10^5 spores/mL. Spores of B. globigii were also detected when mixed with B. pumilus spores in the same sample at equal concentrations (107 spores/mL) using antibody injection. An SPR method using synthetic miRNA was adapted to the portable SPR unit (SPIRIT), and preliminary experiments suggested that the target sequence could be detected. SPR methods using nucleic acids have an exciting future in the detection of biological agents, such as B. anthracis. With the availability of portable instrumentation to accurately detect biological warfare agents such as B. anthracis, emergency responders can implement emergency protocols in a timely fashion, limiting the amount of people and domestic animals exposed. / Master of Science

Bacillus anthracis est un bacille Gram positif dont le pouvoir pathogène repose essentiellement sur l'expression de gènes de virulence incluant deux toxines (la toxine létale (LT) et la toxine œdématogène (ET)) ; et la synthèse d'une capsule. Nous avons étudié la migration des différentes populations cellulaires du parenchyme pulmonaire chez la souris au cours d'une infection in vivo dans le but de comprendre les mécanismes cellulaires d'entrée du pathogène et tout particulièrement le passage de la barrière alvéolo-capillaire. L'analyse des différents compartiments cellulaires ciblés par l'infection montre que dès 10 minutes, les macrophages alvéolaires phagocytent les spores. A partir de 30 min après l'infection, les cellules dendritiques pulmonaires (DCpulm) parenchymateuses phagocytent des spores sans avoir migré dans les alvéoles. La migration de DCpulm infectées jusqu'aux ganglions lymphatiques est observée dès 30 min. Ces résultats démontrent la rapidité de l'infection pulmonaire pas des spores de B. anthracis. Nous avons ensuite étudié l'effet des toxines sur les DCpulm murines purifiées ex vivo, étude correspondant physiologiquement aux phases plus avancées de l'infection. Les résultats montrent qu'après infection avec des souches de B. anthracis exprimant LT, l'expression des marqueurs de co-stimulation et du CMH de classe II par les DCpulm est spécifiquement inhibée. De plus, les toxines, secrétées au cours de l'infection par B. anthracis, inhibent la sécrétion de cytokines par les DCpulm, désorganisant ainsi la réponse immunitaire et permettant l'évasion du pathogène.

Current progress in the development of vaccines has decreased the incidence of fatal and non-fatal infections and increased longevity. However, new technologies need to be developed to combat an emerging generation of infectious diseases. DNA vaccination has been demonstrated to have great potential for use against a wide variety of diseases. Alone, this vaccine technology does not generate a significant immune response for vaccination, but combined with delivery by electroporation (EP), can enhance plasmid expression and immunity against the expressed antigen. Most EP systems, while effective, can be invasive and painful making them less desirable for use in vaccination. Our lab recently developed a non-invasive electrode known as the multi-electrode array (MEA), which lies flat on the surface of the skin without penetrating the tissue. This study evaluated the use of the MEA for the development of DNA vaccines. We assessed the appropriate delivery conditions for gene expression and the development of humoral immunity. We used both B. anthracis and HBV as infectious models for our experiments. Our results indicated that the MEA can enhance gene expression in a mouse model with minimal to no tissue damage. Optimal delivery conditions, based on generation of antibodies, were determined to be 125-175V/cm and 150ms with 200ug and a prime boost protocol administered on Day 0 and 14. Under these conditions, end-point titers of 20,000-25,000 were generated. Neutralizing antibodies were noted in 40-60% of animals. Additionally, we utilized a guinea pig model to assess the translation potential of this electrode. The plasmid encoding HBsAg, pHBsAg, was delivered intradermally with the MEA to guinea pig skin. The results show increased protein expression resulting from plasmid delivery using the MEA as compared to injection alone. Within 48 hours of treatment, there was an influx of cellular infiltrate in the experimental groups. Humoral responses were also increased significantly in both duration and intensity as compared to the injection only groups. Results from both experimental models demonstrate that protective levels of humoral immunity can be generated and that this electrode should translate well to the clinic.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oklahoma. / Bibliography: leaves 116-129.

La forme pulmonaire de la maladie du charbon, causée par l'inhalation de spores de Bacillus anthracis, est très redoutée car souvent fatale. C'est une des raisons pour laquelle B. anthracis fait partie des pathogènes de l'arsenal militaire et bioterroriste.Récemment, le rôle de l'Interleukine (IL)-17, une cytokine pro inflammatoire, a été mis en avant lors de la réponse immunitaire après infection par divers agents pathogènes pulmonaires, notamment via le recrutement des polynucléaires neutrophiles (PNN). C'est dans ce contexte que nous étudions le rôle de l'axe IL-17 chez la souris après infection intranasale par des spores de B. anthracis.Nous avons ainsi pu mettre en évidence à l'aide de différents modèles in vivo (souris A/J et C57BL/6) que le charbon d'inhalation entraîne une sécrétion rapide d'IL-17 par les PNN. D'autre part, cette production est dépendante de la présence des toxines de B. anthracis. À l'aide de souris génétiquement inactives pour le récepteur à l'IL-17 (IL-17ra-/-) nous avons montré l'importance du signal IL-17 pour l'auto-recrutement des PNN, mais également pour la survie des animaux infectés avec des spores issues de la souche Sterne de B. anthracis, que ce soit au niveau des voies aériennes ou sous-cutanée. Étonnamment, l'infection avec une souche virulente (capsulée et toxinogène) n'affecte pas la survie des souris IL-17ra-/-.Enfin la déplétion des PNN a montré une diminution du temps de vie des animaux infectés avec la souche Sterne et une diminution de la survie des animaux infectés avec la souche virulente.Cette étude démontre ainsi le rôle complexe joué par le signal IL-17 et les PNN au cours de la réponse immunitaire mise en place dans le charbon d'inhalation. / The pulmonary form of anthrax is caused by the inhalation of Bacillus anthracis spores, and is much feared because often fatal. This is the reason why B. anthracis is a pathogen of the military arsenal and bioterrorism.Recently, the role of interleukin (IL)-17, a proinflammatory cytokine, has been highlighted during the immune response after infection with various pulmonary pathogens, in particular through the recruitment of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN). In this context, we study the role of the IL-17 in mice after intranasal infection with B. anthracis spores.Using various in vivo models (A / J mice and C57BL / 6), we showed that inhalational anthrax leads to a rapid secretion of IL-17 by the PMN. Furthermore, this production was dependent on the presence of B. anthracis toxins.Using knock out mice for the IL-17 receptor (IL-17ra-/-), we have shown the importance of IL-17 signal for self-recruitment of PMN, but also for the survival of animals infected with spores from the Sterne strain of B. anthracis, by intranasal or subcutaneous route. Surprisingly, infection with a virulent strain (toxigenic and encapsulated) did not affect the survival of IL-17ra-/- mouse.Finally, PMN depletion showed a decrease of time to death of the animals infected with the Sterne strain and decreased survival of animals infected with the virulent strain.This study demonstrates the complex role played by the IL-17 signal and the PNN during the immune response in inhalational anthrax.

Bacillus anthracis is the causal agent of anthrax which primarily affects ungulates, occasionally carnivores and less frequently humans. The endospores of this soil-borne bacterium are highly resistant to extreme conditions, and under ideal conditions, anthrax spores can survive for many years in the soil. The bacterium is generally found in soil at sites where infected animals have died. When these spores are exposed, they have the potential to be ingested by a mammalian species which could lead to an anthrax outbreak. Anthrax is almost never transmitted directly from host to host, but is rather ingested by herbivores while drinking, grazing or browsing in a contaminated environment, with the exception of scavengers and carnivores consuming infected prey. Anthrax is known to be endemic in the northern part of Kruger National Park (KNP) in South Africa (SA), with occasional epidemics spreading southward into the non-endemic areas. The aim of this study is to identify and map areas that are ecologically suitable for the harbouring of B. anthracis spores within the KNP. Anthrax surveillance data and selected environmental variables were used as inputs to the maximum entropy (Maxent) species distribution modelling method. Five-hundred and ninety-seven anthrax occurrence records, dating from the year 1988 to 2011, were extracted from the Skukuza State Veterinary Office’s database. A total of 40 environmental variables were used and their relative contribution to predicting suitability for anthrax occurrence was evaluated using Maxent software (version 3.3.3k). Variables showing the highest gain were then used for subsequent, refined model iterations until the final model parameters were established. The environmental variables that contributed the most to the occurrence of anthrax were soil type, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), land type and precipitation. A map was created using a geographic information system (GIS) that illustrates the sites where anthrax spores are most likely to occur throughout the Park. This included the known endemic Pafuri region as well as the low lying soils along the Shingwedzi-Phugwane-Bubube rivers and the Letaba-Olifants river drainage area. The outputs of this study could guide future targeted surveillance efforts to focus on areas predicted to be highly suitable for anthrax, especially since the KNP uses passive surveillance to detect anthrax outbreaks. Knowing where to look can improve sampling efficiency and lead to increased understanding of the ecology of anthrax within the KNP. / Dissertation (MMedVet)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

Viral protein r (Vpr) of Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) plays an important role in the ability of the virus to infect cells and cause disease. Two polymorphisms to Vpr have been shown to result in differences in disease progression in infected individuals. R36W tends to result in rapid disease progression while R77Q results in long-term non-progression. In order to better understand how these polymorphisms result in these different disease phenotypes, our lab has recently shown that in cell culture, the R36W polymorphism results in increased viral replication and greater induction of cell death. On the other hand, infection with R77Q results in increased G2 cell cycle arrest and increased induction of apoptosis. In this thesis, we have attempted to study how these two polymorphisms affect the ability of HIV-1 to cause cell death in primary CD4+ cells. We show that infection by a Vpr knockout virus results in increased apoptosis while infection with R77Q and R36W result in decreased apoptosis. Additionally, R77Q infection results in increased p24 production. Further, we attempted create a Rag2-/- γc-/- humanized mouse model in order to better study roles of these polymorphisms in vivo. An additional goal of this thesis was to characterize twelve novel Bacillus anthracis bacteriophage. B. anthracis is gram positive, anaerobic, rod best known for being the causative agent of anthrax. Bacteriophage, viruses that infect bacteria, have been used to identify bacterial contamination and to treat infection. Herein, we report the isolation, sequencing, and characterization of twelve novel phages that infect B. anthracis. The genomes were annotated using DNA Master and BLASTp. Hypothetical proteins were analyzed with Phyre2 to predict possible functions based on protein structure, revealing over 100 new predicted functions. Dotplot generation showed that these phages group into four distinct clusters. By running the major portal protein of one representative of each cluster through BLASTp, we have identified the closest relatives to our novel phages and placed them into their respective genera and groups.

Bacillus anthracis is a soil dwelling microbe with pronounced pathogenic potential. Historically, anthrax has infected livestock and man. In the modern-age, anthrax is a bioterrorism concern with major incidents every decade. While the threat of large scale attacks is currently viewed as unlikely, the threat is consistent and constant. Current methods to defend against such an attack focus on antibiotics and containment of public panic. Antibiotic resistance, while not currently an issue for anthrax, could easily become so with genetically engineered weaponized strains created by rogue states or independent actors. This project evolved from collaborations between the Grose lab and the Robison lab, both housed in the Microbiology and Molecular Biology Department at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah. Two undergraduates in the Grose lab isolated 23 genetically distinct phage that infect the non-pathogenic Bacillus anthracis Sterne strain. Results from spot testing on a diverse library of 11 fully virulent strains that represent the extant genetic diversity of pathogenic B. anthracis in BYU’s BSL-3 facility give credence to the idea that phage could be useful in containing this pathogen. Phage were isolated from environmental samples using enrichment culture, high titer lysates of isolated phage were created, and differential assays were performed. Experiments to show phage differences included electron microscopy, restriction digests, and spot testing using different isolates of B. anthracis. These data identified several novel phage that could infect a wide variety of virulent B. anthracis isolates. Preliminary results also showed most of these phage to be different both morphologically and genetically.We propose that phage therapy deserves further research, public awareness, and increased understanding for governmental regulatory awareness.