The Well-To-Wheels (WTW) methodology is widely used for policy making in the transportation sector. In this paper updated WTW calculations are provided, relying on 2013 statistic data, for the carbon intensity (CI) of the European electricity mix; detail is provided for electricity consumed in each EU Member State (MS). An interesting aspect presented is the calculation of the GHG content of electricity traded between Countries, affecting the carbon intensity of the electricity consumed at national level. The amount and CI of imported electricity is a key aspect: a Country importing electricity from another Country with a lower CI of electricity will lower, after the trade, its electricity CI, while importing electricity from a Country with a higher CI will raise the CI of the importing Country. In average, the CI of electricity used in EU at low voltage in 2013 was 447 gCO2eq/kWh, which is the 17% less compared to 2009. Then, some examples of calculation of GHG emissions from the use of electric vehicles (EVs) compared to internal combustion engine vehicles are provided. The use of EVs instead of gasoline vehicles can save (about 60% of) GHG in all or in most of the EU MSs, depending on the estimated consumption of EVs. Compared with diesel, EVs show average GHG savings of around 50% and not savings at all in some EU MS.

The shift towards electric vehicles has during the last years increased; nevertheless, the rate has not been fast enough. Electric vehicles have several environmental benefits as reduced CO2 footprint and a lower climate impact. On the other side, the reality shows that there are several adoption barriers on an individual level for electrical vehicles. These are technical, economic, infrastructure, policy, and social. However, a low amount of literature focuses on the business sector. This thesis examines and explores what the different adoption barriers are concerning battery electric vehicles for small and medium enterprises in Sweden, and why they occur. The purpose of this is to fill the current research gap and provide valuable data to vehicle providers/manufacturers in Sweden. To reach the objectives, an extensive theoretical framework has been created to accurately utilize current literature. In the thesis, five small and medium enterprises participated, and interviews were conducted with nine informants at the specific companies. The findings display that the technical, economic, and infrastructure barriers have the most negative effect on the possibility to adopt battery electric vehicle. It further shows two new barriers, planning and customer/competitors which influence the adoption of battery electric vehicles. These findings solely display the barriers for small and medium enterprises, and by linking together with current literature, new barriers have been presented in terms of planning and customers/competitors.

This thesis explores the possibility of using an optimal control scheme called Model Predictive Control (MPC), to control climatization systems for electric vehicles. Some components of electric vehicles, for example the batteries and power electronics, are sensitive to temperature and for this reason it is important that their temperature is well regulated. Furthermore, like all vehicles, the cab also needs to be heated and cooled. One of the weaknesses of electric vehicles is their range, for this reason it is important that the temperature control is energy efficient. Once the range of electric vehicles is increased the down sides compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles decrease, which could lead to an increase in the usage of electric vehicles. This could in turn lead to a decrease of greenhouse gas emission in the transportation sector. With the help of MPC it is possible for the controller to take more factors into consideration when controlling the system than just temperature and in this thesis the power consumption and noise are also taken into consideration. A simple model where parts of the climate system’s circuits were seen as point masses was developed, with nonlinear heat transfers occurring between them, which in turn were controlled by actuators such as fans, pumps and valves. The model was created using Simulink and MATLAB, and the MPC toolbox was used to develop nonlinear MPC controllers to control the climate system. A standard nonlinear MPC, a nonlinear MPC with custom cost functions and a PI controller where all developed and compared in simulations of a cooling scenario. The controllers were designed to control the temperatures of the battery, power electronics and the cab of an electric vehicle. The results of the thesis indicate that MPC could reduce power consumption for the climate control system, it was however not possible to draw any final conclusions as the PI controller that the MPC controllers were compared to was not well optimized for the system. The MPC controllers could benefit from further work, most importantly by applying a more sophisticated tuning method to the controller weights. What was certain was that it is possible to apply this type of centralized controller to very complex systems and achieve robustness without external logic. Even with the controller keeping track of six different temperatures and controlling 15 actuators, the control loop runs much faster than real time on a modern computer which shows promise with regard to implementing it on an embedded system.

The major barriers to a more widespread introduction of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) beyond early adopters are the limited range, charging limitations, and costly batteries. An important question is therefore where these effects can be most effectively mitigated. An optimization model is developed to estimate the potential for BEVs to replace one of the conventional cars in two-car households and to viably contribute to the households’ driving demand. It uses data from 1 to 3 months of simultaneous GPS logging of the movement patterns for both cars in 64 commuting Swedish two-car households in the Gothenburg region. The results show that, for home charging only, a flexible vehicle use strategy can considerably increase BEV driving and nearly eliminate the unfulfilled driving in the household due to the range and charging limitations with a small battery. The present value of this flexibility is estimated to be on average $6000–$7000 but varies considerably between households. With possible near-future prices for BEVs based on mass production cost estimates, this flexibility makes the total cost of ownership (TCO) for a BEV advantageous in almost all the investigated households compared to a conventional vehicle or a hybrid electric vehicle. Because of the ubiquity of multi-car households in developed economies, these families could be ideal candidates for the initial efforts to enhance BEV adoptions beyond the early adopters. The results of this research can inform the design and marketing of cheaper BEVs with small but enough range and contribute to increased knowledge and awareness of the suitability of BEVs in such households.

The functionality to both charge and discharge energy from and to the power grid to a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) is referred to as Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G). This allows the customer to buy energy when the spot price is low and sell energy when the price is high to make a profit, called energy arbitrage. However, when the battery is charging, discharging, or idling for storage, battery degradation occurs due to chemical properties and reactions. This thesis developed a mathematical optimisation model in Python, using the modelling language Pyomo. Mathematical equations are used to integrate energy arbitrage and degradation data to reduce the total cost in terms of degradation and energy by finding an optimised charge and discharge pattern. The model allows different user scenarios to be analysed by changing inputs such as charger power, battery cost or daily driving distance. When using V2G technology, the State-of-Charge (SoC) level of BEVs battery packs can be adjusted to find SoC levels which minimise the battery degradation, while allowing the user to make a profit from energy arbitrage. The result shows that the V2G charging protocol, compared to protocols without a bidirectional charger could be beneficial for the simulated time periods, by both reducing degradation and the total energy cost. The results also indicate that the degradation cost of the battery is often the determining factor in the decision of when to charge or discharge, i.e., the substantial cost-saving strategy is to control the storage and cycle degradation to reduce the total degradation, rather than controlling the energy arbitrage. The model and the result of this thesis can be used by car manufacturers to learn more about how battery cell types behave in V2G mode and influence further work on V2G control.

I detta examensarbete simuleras ett värmehanteringssystem i Matlab Simulink för en elektrisk lastbil, det för att värmehantera fordonets klimat. Där en värmepump används för nedkylning av kupé och batteri samt en PTC (elektrisk värmare) för uppvärmning av detsamma. Värmepumpen fungerar genom att kompressorn förångar R-134a kylmedlet i systemet som sedan omvandlas till vätska vid nedkylning av kondensorn som utbyter energi med omgivande luften. Vätskan skickas vidare till en mottagare som filtrerar kylmedlet för att sedan överföras till en expansionsventil som kontrollerar trycket i systemet. Vätskan går sedan till evaporatorn för att kylas ned av ett utbyte med varmare omgivande luft från kupén, därefter börjar nedkylningsproessen om. PTC värmaren har en passiv uppvärmningsfunktionaliteten som tar emot ström genom ett motstånd och värmer komponenten med hjälp av en vattencykel. Batteriets räckvidd minskar vid fel temperaturer därav kan batteriets temperatur kontrolleras i drift. Det för att teoretiskt öka räckvidden på fordonet genom att ha batteriet vid en mer gynnsam temperatur. En förstudie genomförs där data samlas in för att sedan modellera och redovisa simulerade resultat som åstadkoms för olika scenarion med uppvärmning och nedkylning. Det visar sig att systemets batteri tar för lång tid vid nedkylning och uppvärmning på grund av dess stora massa. Detta då batteriet inte når måltemperaturen under simuleringens gång som körs i 1 timme och därav inte efter komforttiden som är 10 minuter. Vidare når kupéns delar önskad temperatur inom simuleringstiden förutom under kupéns nedkylning där taket kyls långsammare än önskat. Den enda delen av kupén som uppnår komforttiden är kupéns sidor vid uppvärmning. Vilket betyder att optimeringar på systemet bör tillämpas för att åstadkomma bättre och mer realistiska resultat. / In this thesis, a thermal management system is simulated in Matlab Simulink for an battery electric truck, in order to thermally manage the vehicle's climate. A heat pump is implemented to cool down the cabin and battery while a PTC (electric heater) is implemented to heat the systems respectively. The heat pump works by the compressor vaporizing the R-134a refrigerant in the system, which is then converted to liquid when cooled by the condenser, which exchanges energy with the surrounding air. The liquid is sent further to a receiver that filters the refrigerant and is then transferred to an expansion valve that controls the pressure in the system. The liquid then goes to the evaporator to be cooled by an exchange with warmer ambient air from the vehicle cabin, after which the cooling process begins again. The PTC heater has a passive heating functionality that receives current through a resistor and heats the component using a coolant loop. The battery's range is reduced at incorrect temperatures, therefore the battery's temperature can be checked during operation. This is to theoretically increase the range of the vehicle by having the battery at a more favorable temperature. A pre-study is carried out where data is collected to then model, and present simulated results that were achieved for different scenarios with heating and cooling. It turns out that the system's battery takes too long to cool down and warm up due to its large mass. This is because the battery does not reach the target temperature during the course of the simulation, which is run for 1 hour, and therefore not after the comfort time which is 10 minutes. Furthermore, the parts of the cabin reach the desired temperature within the simulation time, except during the cooling down of the cabin, where the roof cools more slowly than desired. The only part of the cabin that achieves the comfort time is the sides of the cabin when heated. Which means that optimizations to the system should be applied in order to achieve better and more realistic results.

With the change that is taking place in the automotive industry, where production goes from producing internal combustion motor vehicles (ICE) to battery electric vehicles (BEV), this will lead to an increase in transportation of batteries. Batteries are components that are heavy, expensive, and classified as dangerous goods, which means higher demands on transport. The European commission has set a goal of being the first climate-neutral continent by 2050. This places high demands on transport and therefore it is of interest to investigate the most suitable modes of transport. The study aims to investigate whether transport by train or truck is best suited when battery cells for electric cars are to be transported. The factors that were examined are how the transports affect the environment through the amount of carbon dioxide emissions, the degree of filling that the transports achieve, its impact on tied-up capital and which alternative is best suited for the transport of heavy and dangerous goods. A delimitation was made to only study Volvo Car's emerging transport flow of battery cells somewhere in Central Europe to Sweden. The methods used in this report were semi-structured interview as well as document analysis and literature review. Interviews were conducted with Volvo Cars and with Green Cargo. Document analyses have been made of material produced by Volvo Cars. The results of this study showed that trains were best suited from an environmental perspective and in terms of the degree of filling, while the truck was best in terms of delivery precision. Concerning tied-up capital, benefits were seen for both modes of transport depending on the train's number of departures per week and how the train flow was planned. Regarding the aspect that batteries are classified as dangerous goods, no obstacles were seen regardless of the choice of transport method. This thesis intends to provide companies with information that can be of interest when choosing mode of transport. It will be applicable to stakeholders that transport heavy goods and that are in a state where they want to review their transport alternatives. / Med förändringen som sker inom fordonsindustrin, där produktionen går från att tillverka bilar med förbränningsmotorer till att producera bilar som drivs med hjälp av batterier så kommer detta att leda till en ökad transport av battericeller. Batterier är komponenter som är tunga, dyra och som klassificeras som farligt gods, vilket innebär höga krav på transporterna. Europakommissionen har satt som mål att Europa år 2050 ska vara den första klimatneutrala kontinenten. Detta ställer höga krav på transporter och därför är det av intresse att undersöka det bäst lämpade transportalternativet. Studien syftar till att undersöka om transport med tåg eller lastbil är bäst lämpat när battericeller till elbilar skall transporteras. De faktorer som undersökts är hur transporterna påverkar miljön genom mängden utsläpp av koldioxid, den fyllnadsgrad som uppnås under transporterna, dess påverkan på kapitalbindningen och vilket alternativ som var bäst lämpat för transport av tungt och farligt gods. En avgränsning gjordes till att endast studera Volvo Cars kommande transportflöde av battericeller mellan Tyskland och Sverige. Metoderna som användes i denna rapport var semistrukturerad intervju, dokumentanalys samt litteraturgranskning. Intervjuer har genomförts med Volvo Cars och med Green Cargo. Dokumentanalyser har gjorts av material som producerats av Volvo Cars. Resultaten av denna studie visade att tåg lämpade sig bäst ur ett miljöperspektiv och när det gäller fyllnadsgrad i lastbäraren, medan lastbil var bäst vad gäller leveransprecision. När kapitalbindning undersöktes sågs fördelar för båda transportslagen beroende på tågets antal avgångar per vecka och hur tågflödet planerades. Gällande aspekten att batterier klassas som farligt gods sågs inga hinder oavsett val av transportsätt. Detta examensarbete ämnar ge företag information som kan vara av intresse vid val av transportsätt. Rapporten kommer att vara tillämpbar för intressenter som transporterar tungt gods och som befinner sig i ett läge där de vill se över sina transportalternativ.

Bilindustrin förflyttar sig mer och mer från bensinmotorn till det mer miljövänliga alternativet den batteridrivna motorn. För att denna övergång skall gå smidigt behöver man hålla en viss standard bensinmotorn har satt för tillgång och prestanda på marknaden. En av de större skillnaderna som finns mellan motorerna är livslängden och en av de viktigaste aspekterna man bör hålla koll på för att gå framåt inom teknologin är temperatur-hantering av batteriet. Målet med arbetet är att skapa en modell för minimumtemperaturen av en CATL 620 C batteri modul. Projektet är avgränsat till körning i kallt klimat. Verktygen som använts har varit MATLAB och dess funktioner för regression, filtrering och diagram som har använts för att analysera fram ett godtyckligt resultat av modellen. Resultaten har bearbetats och jämförts med den gamla modellen och ramverket som använts för att skapa modellen. I många fall är den bättre än den gamla modellen och den följer kurvaturen på den gamla väl i de flesta scenariona men det finns problemfall. Ett av de stora kvarvarande problemområdena är då de största influenstemperaturerna för modellen fluktuerar kraftigt. / The vehicle industry is moving away from combustion engines towards the more environmentally affordable solution electrical engines. For this transition to go smoothly the Battery-electric vehicles needs to have a certain standard that was present in the earlier engine types when it comes to availability and performance. One of the bigger differences is the longevity of the vehicles. A big part of solving that problem in a lithium-ion battery is temperature management. The aim of the project is to create a minimum temperature model of a CATL 620 C battery module. The project is limited to acquired test data from cold climate driving. The tool to solve this was with the help of MATLAB and its functions for regression, filtering and plotting to help us analyse together a viable solution. The results were compared to the old model and the framework for building the model. The model is better than the old model in a lot of cases but there are still problem-areas, especially regarding areas where the influencing temperatures are heavily fluctuating. It seems to follow the dynamics of the framework most of the time otherwise but there are still question marks regarding driving in other type of environments than what has been provided from the test-scenarios

The automotive industry is facing some of the most difficult design challenges in industry history. Developing innovative methods to reduce fossil fuel dependence is imperative for maintaining compliance with government regulations and consumer demand. In addition to powertrain design, route selection contributes to vehicle environmental impact. The objective of this thesis is to develop a methodology for evaluating the energy consumption of each route option for a specific vehicle. A 'backwards' energy tracking method determines tractive demand at the wheels from route requirements and vehicle characteristics. Next, this method tracks energy quantities at each powertrain component. Each component model is scalable such that different vehicle powertrains may be approximated. Using an 'ecorouting' process, the most ideal route is selected by weighting relative total energy consumption and travel time. Only limited powertrain characteristics are publicly available. As the future goal of this project is to apply the model to many vehicle powertrain types, the powertrain model must be reasonably accurate with minimal vehicle powertrain characteristics. Future work expands this model to constantly re-evaluate energy consumption with real-time traffic and terrain information. While ecorouting has been applied to conventional vehicles in many publications, electrified vehicles are less studied. Hybrid vehicles are particularly complicated to model due to additional components, systems, and operation modes. This methodology has been validated to represent conventional, battery electric, and parallel hybrid electric vehicles. A sensitivity study demonstrates that the model is capable of differentiating powertrains with different parameters and routes with different characteristics. / Master of Science

The design and manufacture of lightweight electric vehicles is becoming increasingly important with the rising cost of petrol, and the effects emissions from petrol powered vehicles are having on our environment. The University of Waikato and HybridAuto's Ultracommuter electric vehicle was designed, manufactured, and tested. The vehicle has been driven over 1800km with only a small reliability issue, indicating that the Ultracommuter was well designed and could potentially be manufactured as a solution to ongoing transportation issues. The use of titanium aluminide components in the automotive industry was researched. While it only has half the density of alloy steel, titanium aluminides have the same strength and stiffness as steel, along with good corrosion resistance, making them suitable as a lightweight replacement for steel components. Automotive applications identified that could benefit from the use of TiAl include brake callipers, brake rotors and electric motor components.