De nombreux travailleurs sont exposés aux hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques (HAP). Le benzo(a)pyrène (BaP) fait partie de ce groupe de polluants. Cette substance a été classée cancérogène reconnu chez l’humain. Pour évaluer l'exposition aux HAP cancérogènes, plusieurs chercheurs ont proposé d’utiliser la mesure du 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrène (3-OHBaP) dans l’urine des travailleurs exposés. Dans le cadre du présent projet, deux approches de modélisation ont été développées et appliquées pour permettre une meilleure compréhension de la toxicocinétique du BaP et son biomarqueur d’intérêt actuel, le 3-OHBaP, et pour aider à interpréter les résultats de surveillance biologique. Un modèle toxicocinétique à plusieurs compartiments a été développé sur la base des données préalablement obtenues sur le rat par notre groupe. Selon le modèle, le BaP injecté par voie intraveineuse est rapidement distribué du sang vers les tissus (t½ ≈ 4 h), avec une affinité particulière pour les poumons et les composantes lipidiques des tissus. Le BaP est ensuite distribué vers la peau et le foie. Au foie, le BaP est promptement métabolisé et le 3-OHBaP est formé avec une demi-vie de ≈ 3 h. Le métabolisme pulmonaire du BaP a également été pris en compte, mais sa contribution à la cinétique globale du BaP a été jugée négligeable. Une fois formé, le 3-OHBaP est distribué vers les différents organes presque aussi rapidement que la molécule mère (t½ ≈ 2 h). Le profil temporel du 3-OHBaP dans le rein montre une accumulation transitoire en raison de la différence observée entre le taux d’entrée (t½ = 28 min) et le taux de sortie (t½ = 4,5 h). La clairance totale de 3-OHBaP du corps est principalement gouvernée par le taux de transfert de la bile vers le tractus gastro-intestinal (t½ ≈ 4 h). Le modèle toxicocinétique à plusieurs compartiments a réussi à simuler un ensemble indépendant de profils urinaires publiés sur le 3-OHBaP. Ce modèle toxicocinétique à compartiments s'est avéré utile pour la determination des facteurs biologiques déterminants de la cinétique du BaP et du 3-OHBaP. Par la suite, un modèle pharmacocinétique à base physiologique (PCBP) reproduisant le devenir du BaP et du 3-OHBaP chez le rat a été construit. Les organes (ou tissus) représentés comme des compartiments ont été choisis en fonction de données expérimentales obtenues in vivo chez le rat. Les coefficients de partition, les coefficients de perméabilité, les taux de métabolisation, les paramètres d'excrétion, les fractions absorbées et les taux d'absorption pour différentes voies d’exposition ont été obtenus directement à partir des profils sanguins, tissulaires, urinaires et fécaux du BaP et du 3-OHBaP. Les valeurs de ces derniers paramètres ont été calculées par des procédures Monte-Carlo. Des analyses de sensibilité ont ensuite été réalisées pour s’assurer de la stabilité du modèle et pour établir les paramètres les plus sensibles de la cinétique globale. Cette modélisation a permis d’identifier les facteurs déterminants de la cinétique: 1) la sensibilité élevée des paramètres de la métabolisation hépatique du BaP et du 3-OHBaP ainsi que du taux d'élimination; 2) la forte distribution du BaP dans les poumons par rapport à d'autres tissus; 3) la distribution considérable du BaP dans les tissus adipeux et le foie; 4) la forte distribution du 3-OHBaP dans les reins; 5) le transfert limité du BaP par la diffusion tissulaire dans les poumons; 6) le transfert limité du 3-OHBaP par la diffusion tissulaire dans les poumons, les tissus adipeux et les reins; 7) la recirculation entéro-hépatique significative du 3-OHBaP. Suite à des analyses de qualité des ajustements des équations du modèle aux données observées, les probabilités que les simulations reproduisent les données expérimentales par pur hasard se sont avérées toujours inférieures à 10% pour les quatre voies d’exposition : intraveineuse, orale, cutanée et respiratoire. Nous avons extrapolé les modèles cinétiques du rat à l’humain afin de se doter d’un outil permettant de reconstituer les doses absorbées chez des travailleurs exposés dans diverses industries à partir de mesures de l'évolution temporelle du 3-OHBaP dans leur urine. Les résultats de ces modélisations ont ensuite été comparés à ceux de simulations obtenues avec un modèle toxicocinétique à compartiment unique pour vérifier l’utilité comparative d’un modèle simple et complexe. Les deux types de modèle ont ainsi été construits à partir de profils sanguins, tissulaires, urinaires et fécaux du BaP et du 3-OHBaP sur des rats exposés. Ces données ont été obtenues in vivo par voie intraveineuse, cutanée, respiratoire et orale. Ensuite, les modèles ont été extrapolés à l’humain en tenant compte des déterminants biologiques essentiels des différences cinétiques entre le rat et l’humain. Les résultats ont montré que l'inhalation n'était pas la principale voie d'exposition pour plusieurs travailleurs étudiés. Les valeurs de concentrations de BaP dans l’air utilisées afin de simuler les profils d’excrétion urinaire chez les travailleurs étaient différentes des valeurs de concentrations de BaP mesurées dans l’air. Une exposition au BaP par voie cutanée semblait mieux prédire les profils temporels observés. Finalement, les deux types de modélisation se sont avérés utiles pour reproduire et pour interpréter les données disponibles chez des travailleurs. / Many workers are exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Benzo(a) pyrene (BaP) is part of this group of pollutants. This substance has been classified as a known carcinogen in humans. To assess exposure to carcinogenic PAHs, several researchers have proposed using the measurement of 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrene (3-OHBaP) in the urine of exposed workers. In this project, two modeling approaches were developed and applied to enable a better understanding of the toxicokinetics of BaP and its biomarker of current interest, 3-OHBaP, to help interpret the results of biological monitoring. A multi-compartment toxicokinetic model was developed based on the data previously obtained in rats by our group of research. According to the model, BaP injected intravenously is rapidly distributed from blood to tissues (t½ ≈ 4 h), with a particular affinity for lungs and lipid components of tissues. Subsequently, BaP is distributed to the liver and the skin. Once in the liver, BaP is promptly metabolized and 3-OHBaP is formed with a half-life of about 3 h. Pulmonary biotransformation of BaP was also taken into account, but its contribution to the overall kinetics of BaP was considered negligible. Once formed, 3-OHBaP is distributed to various organs almost as fast as the parent compound (t½ ≈ 2 h). An accumulation of 3-OHBaP profile is present in the kidneys because of the difference between the uptake rate (t½ = 28 min) and the ouput rate (t½ = 4.5 h). Total clearance of 3-OHBaP from the blood stream is primarily governed by the rate of transfer of the bile to the gastrointestinal tract (t ½ ≈ 4 h). The multi-compartment toxicokinetic model was able to simulate an independent set of published 3-OHBaP urinary profiles. This toxicokinetic compartmental model has proved useful for the determination of the main biological features of the kinetics of BaP and 3-OHBaP. Thereafter, a physiological pharmacokinetic model (PBPK) reproducing the fate of BaP and 3-OHBaP rats was built. Organs (or tissues) represented as compartments were selected based on experimental data obtained in vivo in rats. Partition coefficients, coefficients of permeability, biotransformation rates, excretion parameters, and absorption fraction for different exposure routes were obtained directly from the profiles of BaP and 3-OHBaP in blood, various tissues and excreta. The values of these parameters were calculated by Monte Carlo procedures. Sensitivity analyses were then performed to ensure the stability of the model and to determine the most sensitive parameters. This modeling has identified the following features: 1) a high sensitivity of hepatic metabolism and elimination rates of BaP and 3-OHBaP; 2) a large distribution of BaP in the lungs compared to other tissues; 3) a considerable distribution of BaP in adipose tissues and liver; 4) a significant distribution of 3-OHBaP in the kidneys; 5) a diffusion-limited transfer of BaP in the lungs, 6) a diffusion-limited transfer of 3-OHBaP in lungs, adipose tissues and kidneys; and 7) a significant entero-hepatic recycling of 3-OHBaP. Following a series of analysis of goodness of fit, the probabilites that the model simulations reproduced the experimental data due to pure chance were always below 10%, for the four routes of exposure: intravenous, oral, dermal and respiratory. Subsequently, we have extrapolated the kinetic models from rats to humans in order reproduce the temporal evolution of 3-OHBaP biomarker of exposure in the urine of workers occupationally expose. Results of these models were then compared to simulations obtained with a single compartment toxicokinetic model to verify the comparative usefulness of simple and complex model. Both types of models have been constructed from blood, tissue, urinary and faecal profiles of BaP and 3-OHBaP in rats. These data were obtained in vivo by intravenous, subcutaneous, oral and respiratory exposure. The models were extrapolated to humans taking into account the essential biological determinants of kinetic differences between rats and humans. Results showed that inhalation was not the primary route of exposure for many workers studied. The values of air concentrations of BaP used to simulate the urinary excretion profiles were different from those measured in the air. Dermal exposure to BaP seemed to better predict the temporal patterns observed. Finally, the two types of modeling have been proved useful to reproduce and to interpret experimental data obtained in workers.

L’effort physique a été reconnu comme l’un des déterminants majeurs qui affecte l’absorption pulmonaire et la cinétique des solvants industriels, composés volatils très répandus dans le milieu de travail. L’objectif global de ce projet était de caractériser la relation entre divers niveaux de charge de travail et les concentrations biologiques de l’acétone et du styrène ou de ses métabolites utilisés comme des indicateurs biologiques de l’exposition (IBEs) à ces solvants. Des modèles pharmacocinétiques à base physiologique ont été développés et validés afin de reproduire une exposition professionnelle à l’acétone et au styrène, individuellement et en combinaison, durant une semaine complète de travail (8h/jour, 5 jours). Les simulations ont été effectuées suivant une exposition aux valeurs limite d’exposition (500 ppm et 20 ppm, respectivement) et à des charges de travail de 12,5 W (repos), 25 W et 50 W. Les valeurs prédites par les modèles ont été comparées aux valeurs de référence des IBEs actuels. Le niveau d’acétone dans l’urine obtenu à la fin du dernier quart de travail était 3,5 fois supérieur à la valeur au repos (28 mg/L) pour un effort de 50 W, tandis que les niveaux de styrène dans le sang veineux et de ses métabolites dans l’urine ont augmenté d’un facteur d’environ 3,0 en comparaison avec les valeurs au repos, respectivement de 0,17 mg/L et 144 mg/g créatinine. Pour une co-exposition à des concentrations de 20 ppm de styrène et 200 ppm d’acétone et à une activité physique de 50 W, les simulations ont montré une augmentation de 10% du styrène sanguin et une faible diminution de ses métabolites dans l’urine. Les valeurs simulées par les modèles pour l’acétone ou le styrène montrent que des travailleurs dont la charge de travail équivaut à plus de 25 W sont susceptibles d’avoir des concentrations internes pouvant dépasser les valeurs de référence des IBEs respectifs de ces solvants et peuvent être à risque. Les résultats soulignent ainsi l’importance de tenir compte de la charge de travail dans la détermination d’une valeur de référence pour la surveillance biologique de l’acétone et du styrène. / Workload has been recognized as a major determinant for the pulmonary absorption and the kinetics of industrial solvents, which are volatile compounds largely used in the workplace. This study was undertaken to characterize the relationship between different levels of workload and the biological levels of acetone and styrene or its metabolites used as biological exposure indices (BEIs). Physiologically based pharmacokinetic models were adapted and validated in order to simulate a typical week long occupational exposure (8h/day, 5 days) to acetone and styrene alone or in co-exposure. Simulations were conducted at the current threshold limit values of 500 ppm and 20 ppm, respectively, and under workload levels corresponding to rest (12,5 W), 25 W and 50 W. The predicted values were compared to the current reference value of the BEIs. The end-of-shift level of acetone in urine for a workload of 50 W showed a 3,5-fold increase compared to the value at rest (28 mg/L), whereas the level of styrene in venous blood and its metabolites in urine showed about 3,0-fold increases compared to rest (0,17 mg/L and 144 mg/g creatinine, respectively). Simulations showed that a combined exposure of 20 ppm of styrene with 200 ppm of acetone at 50 W lead to an increase of styrene in blood of 10% of the corresponding level without acetone, while the level of metabolites in urine was slightly decreased. The simulated values for both acetone and styrene showed that workers performing heavy tasks (>25 W) are more likely to present higher internal levels which exceed the current BEIs reference values and may lead to health effects.The models described well the impact of workload on internal exposure and highlighted that workload needs to be taken into account while determining reference values for biological monitoring of acetone and styrene.

O aumento da emissão de poluentes no meio ambiente tem gerado preocupação com a exposição humana a esses contaminantes, refletindo-se no aumento significativo de pesquisas envolvendo biomonitorizações. De modo geral, o método mais apropriado para interpretar resultados de biomonitorização é descrever tendências ou distribuições dos valores observados na população, e compará-los com uma população de referência, utilizando os valores de referência (VR). Porém, muitos países, incluindo o Brasil, ainda não têm disponíveis valores de referência de base populacional. Dessa forma, para a interpretação dos resultados obtidos em estudos de biomonitorização no Brasil, comumente são utilizados valores preconizados na literatura internacional, que não refletem a realidade da nossa população dificultando o diagnóstico e a solução do problema. O objetivo deste estudo foi derivar valores de referência para chumbo, cádmio, mercúrio e níquel em sangue de crianças e adultos sadios, sem exposição ocupacional a esses metais, residentes no município de São Paulo. Amostras de sangue de 786 adultos (14 a 70 anos) e 538 crianças (6 a 13 anos) foram coletadas entre 2007 e 2008. Questionários foram aplicados para se obter informação a respeito de variáveis que poderiam influenciar os níveis dos metais estudados no sangue. Os valores de referência foram estabelecidos considerando o limite superior do intervalo de confiança a 95% para o percentil 95 da distribuição dos dados obtidos para cada metal. Os VR derivados por faixa etária e gênero para chumbo foram: 32,6 e 42,3 µg/L para o grupo masculino abaixo de 11 anos e acima de 20 anos, respectivamente, no grupo feminino nas mesmas faixas etárias os VR derivados foram 26,2 e 31,1 µg/L. Para cádmio os VR foram de 0,42 e 0,62 µg/L para homens e para mulheres os VR foram 0,19 e 0,56 µg/L, para a mesma faixa etária mencionada. No caso do mercúrio para o grupo masculino os VR foram 1,5 e 3,1 µg/L e para o grupo feminino os VR foram 1,6 e 3,2 µg/L, respectivamente para as faixas etárias mencionadas e, para níquel os VR para homens foram de 3,60 e 3,63 µg/L e para mulheres foram de 3,64 e 3,50 µg/L, respectivamente para as faixas etárias mencionadas. Gênero, idade e hábito de fumar foram as variáveis que apresentaram associação significativa com as concentrações de chumbo e cádmio em sangue. Além dessas, consumo de vísceras e miúdos e área de moradia mostraram estar associados com os níveis de chumbo em sangue e, consumo de destilados para os níveis de cádmio em sangue. Para mercúrio, idade, consumo de peixes e vísceras e miúdos foram os fatores que apresentaram associação significativa com os níveis do metal no sangue. Para níquel em sangue os fatores determinantes foram idade, consumo de peixe, vísceras e miúdos e frango. Os valores de referência obtidos neste estudo poderão subsidiar os diagnósticos de exposição ambiental ao chumbo, cádmio,mercúrio e níquel. / The increase in the emission of pollutants in the environment has raised concern with human exposure to these contaminants, reflected in the significant increase of research involving biomonitoring. In general, the most appropriate method for interpreting biomonitoring results is to describe trends or distributions of observed values in the population, and compare them with a reference population using reference values (RV). However, many countries, including Brazil, still do not have population-based reference values available. Thus, for the interpretation of results obtained in biomonitoring studies in Brazil, values commonly encountered in the international literature are used, which do not reflect the reality of our country\'s population, making difficult to diagnose and fix the problem. The aim of this study was to derive reference values for lead, cadmium, mercury and nickel in blood of healthy children and adults without occupational exposure to these metals residing in the city of São Paulo. Blood samples from 786 adults (14-70 years old) and 538 children (6-13 years old) were collected between 2007 and 2008. Questionnaires were applied to obtain information regarding variables that could influence the levels of the studied metals in blood. Reference values were established considering the upper limit of the 95% confidence interval for the 95th percentile of the distribution of data for each metal. The RV derived by age and gender for lead were: 32.6 and 42.3 µg/L for males below 11 years old and above 20 years old respectively; for females in the same age groups RV were 26.2 and 31.1 µg/L. For cadmium the RV were 0.42 and 0.62 µg/L for men and for women were 0.19 and 0.56 µg/L for the same age groups mentioned. In the case of mercury for the males the RV were 1.5 and 3.1 µg/L and for females were 1.6 and 3.2 µg/L, respectively for the mentioned age groups and for nickel RV for men were 3.60 and 3.63 µg/L and for women were 3.64 and 3.50 µg/L, respectively for the mentioned age groups. Gender, age and smoking were the variables significantly associated with the concentrations of lead and cadmium in blood. Besides these, consumption of viscera and offal and area of residence were associated with levels of lead in blood, and consumption of spirits with levels of cadmium in blood. For mercury, age, consumption of fish, viscera and offal were the factors significantly associated with levels of that metal in the blood. Determinants of nickel in blood were age, consumption of fish, chicken and viscera and offal. The reference values obtained in this study may support the diagnosis of environmental exposure to lead, cadmium, mercury and nickel.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-10T14:38:35Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Renata.pdf: 1386030 bytes, checksum: 535c46b1abd87bc9822da8e752d70575 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-08-10 / The identification of minimally impacted sites and the selection of metrics for assessing the effects of human activities on aquatic environments has been a key issue in the management of these ecosystems. This paper presents a practical and easy method to identify reference sites and selection of the most significant metrics that reflect the general attributes of the assemblies, altered by human impacts. For this we evaluated the biotic integrity in some neotropical streams, located in Paraná state, Brazil, through the benthic macroinvertebrates and fish. The identification of reference sites was based on the physical and chemical quality of the habitat, and the physical and chemical variables summarized by principal component analysis, and submitted to cluster analysis to identify the reference sites. Sixteen metrics were calculated, which were submitted to a discriminant analysis to select the most significant metrics. The principal component analysis and cluster analysis showed that the reference sites were selected according to composition ande physical quality of the sediment. These sites were positively correlated with larger particles such as pebbles and negatively associated with smaller particles. The discriminant analysis showed that few metrics are sufficient to identify changes in the assemblies by human activities and that assemblies respond differently to environmental changes. In the pooled analysis of the assemblies the metrics selected for macroinvertebrate were different than metrics selected in the analysis performed solely for that assembly, in the pooled analysis were selected metrics abundance, percentage of tolerant and percentage of shredders, whereas in exclusive analysis were selected metrics richness and percentage of tolerant. Greater richness of macroinvertebrates were observed at pristine sites, while the percentage of tolerance increased with the gradient of impact. On the other hand, for the fish assemblage were selected metrics of richness, diversity and percentage of omnivores. Greatest richness were observed in moderately impacted sites, while higher values of diversity and percentage of omnivores were observed in reference sites. The analysis of the metrics of the two assemblages provided a more robust evaluation the sites categorized according to a gradient of impact, than the separate evaluation of the assemblages. However, the benthic macroinvertebrates assemblage was equally effective to confirm the reference sites. The procedure presented in this paper can easily assist managers in selecting effective methods for protecting and restoring stream ecosystems / A identificação de locais minimamente impactados e a seleção de métricas para a avaliação dos efeitos das atividades humanas sobre os ambientes aquáticos tem sido uma questão chave na gestão desses ecossistemas. Este trabalho apresenta um método protocolo para a identificação de locais de referência e seleção de métricas mais significativas, que refletem os atributos gerais das assembleias, alteradas pelos impactos humanos. Para isso foi avaliada a integridade biótica em alguns riachos neotropicais, localizados no estado do Paraná, Brasil, através da fauna de macroinvertebrados bentônicos e peixes. A identificação dos locais de referência foi realizada com base na qualidade física e química do habitat, sendo as variáveis físicas e químicas sumarizadas pela análise de componentes principais e submetidas à análise de agrupamento para a identificação dos locais de referência. Foram calculadas dezesseis métricas, as quais foram submetidas a uma análise discriminante para a seleção das métricas mais significativas. A análise de componentes principais e a análise de agrupamento revelaram que os locais de referência foram selecionados de acordo com a composição e qualidade física do sedimento. Esses locais foram correlacionados positivamente com partículas maiores, como seixos e, negativamente, com partículas menores. A análise discriminante demonstrou que poucas métricas são suficientes para identificar alterações nas assembleias decorrentes de atividades humanas e que as assembleias respondem de maneira distinta às alterações ambientais. Na análise conjunta das assembleias as métricas selecionadas para macroinvertebrados foram diferentes das métricas selecionadas na análise realizada para essa assembleia exclusivamente, na análise conjunta foram selecionadas as métricas de abundância, percentagem de tolerantes e percentagem de fragmentadores, enquanto que na análise exclusiva foram selecionadas as métricas de riqueza e percentagem de tolerantes. Maiores valores de riqueza de macroinvertebrados foram observados em locais prístinos, enquanto que a percentagem de tolerantes aumentou de acordo com o gradiente de impacto. Por outro lado, para a ictiofauna foram selecionadas as métricas de riqueza, diversidade e percentagem de onívoros. Maiores valores de riqueza foram observados nos locais moderadamente impactados, enquanto que maiores valores de diversidade e percentagem de onívoros foram observados nos locais de referência. A análise das métricas das duas assembleias proporcionou uma avaliação mais robusta dos locais categorizados, segundo um gradiente de impacto, do que a avaliação isolada das assembleias. Entretanto, a assembleia de macroinvertebrados bentônicos foi igualmente eficiente para confirmar os locais de referência. O procedimento apresentado neste trabalho poderá facilmente auxiliar os gestores na seleção de métodos eficazes para a proteção e restauração de ecossistemas lóticos

L’effort physique a été reconnu comme l’un des déterminants majeurs qui affecte l’absorption pulmonaire et la cinétique des solvants industriels, composés volatils très répandus dans le milieu de travail. L’objectif global de ce projet était de caractériser la relation entre divers niveaux de charge de travail et les concentrations biologiques de l’acétone et du styrène ou de ses métabolites utilisés comme des indicateurs biologiques de l’exposition (IBEs) à ces solvants. Des modèles pharmacocinétiques à base physiologique ont été développés et validés afin de reproduire une exposition professionnelle à l’acétone et au styrène, individuellement et en combinaison, durant une semaine complète de travail (8h/jour, 5 jours). Les simulations ont été effectuées suivant une exposition aux valeurs limite d’exposition (500 ppm et 20 ppm, respectivement) et à des charges de travail de 12,5 W (repos), 25 W et 50 W. Les valeurs prédites par les modèles ont été comparées aux valeurs de référence des IBEs actuels. Le niveau d’acétone dans l’urine obtenu à la fin du dernier quart de travail était 3,5 fois supérieur à la valeur au repos (28 mg/L) pour un effort de 50 W, tandis que les niveaux de styrène dans le sang veineux et de ses métabolites dans l’urine ont augmenté d’un facteur d’environ 3,0 en comparaison avec les valeurs au repos, respectivement de 0,17 mg/L et 144 mg/g créatinine. Pour une co-exposition à des concentrations de 20 ppm de styrène et 200 ppm d’acétone et à une activité physique de 50 W, les simulations ont montré une augmentation de 10% du styrène sanguin et une faible diminution de ses métabolites dans l’urine. Les valeurs simulées par les modèles pour l’acétone ou le styrène montrent que des travailleurs dont la charge de travail équivaut à plus de 25 W sont susceptibles d’avoir des concentrations internes pouvant dépasser les valeurs de référence des IBEs respectifs de ces solvants et peuvent être à risque. Les résultats soulignent ainsi l’importance de tenir compte de la charge de travail dans la détermination d’une valeur de référence pour la surveillance biologique de l’acétone et du styrène. / Workload has been recognized as a major determinant for the pulmonary absorption and the kinetics of industrial solvents, which are volatile compounds largely used in the workplace. This study was undertaken to characterize the relationship between different levels of workload and the biological levels of acetone and styrene or its metabolites used as biological exposure indices (BEIs). Physiologically based pharmacokinetic models were adapted and validated in order to simulate a typical week long occupational exposure (8h/day, 5 days) to acetone and styrene alone or in co-exposure. Simulations were conducted at the current threshold limit values of 500 ppm and 20 ppm, respectively, and under workload levels corresponding to rest (12,5 W), 25 W and 50 W. The predicted values were compared to the current reference value of the BEIs. The end-of-shift level of acetone in urine for a workload of 50 W showed a 3,5-fold increase compared to the value at rest (28 mg/L), whereas the level of styrene in venous blood and its metabolites in urine showed about 3,0-fold increases compared to rest (0,17 mg/L and 144 mg/g creatinine, respectively). Simulations showed that a combined exposure of 20 ppm of styrene with 200 ppm of acetone at 50 W lead to an increase of styrene in blood of 10% of the corresponding level without acetone, while the level of metabolites in urine was slightly decreased. The simulated values for both acetone and styrene showed that workers performing heavy tasks (>25 W) are more likely to present higher internal levels which exceed the current BEIs reference values and may lead to health effects.The models described well the impact of workload on internal exposure and highlighted that workload needs to be taken into account while determining reference values for biological monitoring of acetone and styrene.

Organophosphate (OP) pesticides, as a group, are the most widely used insecticides in Australia. Approximately 5 000 tonnes of active ingredient are used annually (Radcliffe, 2002). The OP pesticide group consists of around 30 identifiably distinct chemicals that are synthesised and added to approximately 700 products (Radcliffe, 2002). OP pesticides are used on fruit, vegetable, grain, pasture seed, ornamental, cotton, and viticultural crops, on livestock and domestic animals, as well as for building pest control. OP pesticides all act by inhibiting the nervous system enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and as such are termed anticholinesterase insecticides. The phosphorylation of AChE and the resultant accumulation of acetylcholine are responsible for the typical symptoms of acute poisoning with OP compounds. In addition to acute health effects, OP compound exposure can result in chronic, long-term neurological effects. The traditional method of health surveillance for OP pesticide exposure is blood cholinesterase analysis, which is actually biological effect monitoring. However, there are several drawbacks associated with the use of the blood cholinesterase test, including its invasive nature, the need for baseline levels and a substantial exposure to OP pesticide before a drop in cholinesterase activity can be detected. OP pesticides are metabolised fairly rapidly by the liver to form alkyl phosphates (DAPs). Approximately 70% of OP pesticides in use in Australia will metabolise into one or more of six common DAPs. During the last 30 years, scientists have developed a urine test that detects these six degradation products. However, unlike the blood cholinesterase test, there is currently no Biological Exposure Index (BEI) for the urine DAP metabolite test. Workers in the agricultural industry - particularly those involved with mixing, loading and application tasks - are at risk of exposure to OP pesticides. It is therefore important that these workers are able to assess their risk of health effects from exposure to OP pesticides. However, currently in Queensland, workplace health and safety legislation exempts the agricultural industry from hazardous substance legislation that incorporates the requirement to perform risk assessments and health surveillance (blood cholinesterase testing) for OP pesticide exposure. The specific aim of this research was to characterise OP pesticide exposure and to assess the feasibility of using urine DAP metabolite testing as a risk assessment tool for agricultural and related industry workers exposed to OP pesticides. An additional aim among farmers was to conduct an in-depth evaluation of their knowledge, attitudes and behaviours related to handling OP pesticides and how they assess the risks associated with their use of OPs. A cross-sectional study design was used to assess exposure to OP pesticides and related issues among four groups: fruit and vegetable farmers, pilots and mixer/loaders, formulator plant staff and a control group. The study involved 51 farmers in the interviewer-administered questionnaire and 32 in urine sample provision. Eighteen pilots and mixer/loaders provided urine samples and 9 exposed formulation plant staff provided urine and blood samples. Community controls from Toowoomba Rotary clubs provided 44 urine samples and 11 non-exposed formulation plant staff provided blood and urine samples; all groups also provided responses to a self-administered questionnaire. Participant farmers were drawn from the main cropping areas in south-east Queensland - Laidley/Lowood, Gatton, and Stanthorpe. The farmer group was characterised by small owner-operators who often had primary responsibility for OP pesticide mixing and application. Farmers had good knowledge of pesticide-related safety practices; however, despite this knowledge, use of personal protective equipment (PPE) was low. More than half of the farmers did not often wear a mask/respirator (56%), gloves (54%) or overalls (65%). Material Safety Data Sheets were never or rarely read and 88.2% of farmers never or rarely read OP pesticide labels before application. There were also problems with chemical suppliers providing farmers with MSDSs. The majority of farmers (90.2%) reported that they had never had any health surveillance performed and three-quarters had never read about or been shown how to perform a formal risk assessment. The main inhibitors to the use of PPE in the farmers' group included the uncomfortable and cumbersome nature of PPE, especially in hot weather conditions, and the fear of PPE use triggering neighbours' complaints to Government authorities. Factors associated with better PPE use included having positive attitudes and beliefs toward PPE use, higher knowledge scores and low risk perception. Farmers' use of OP pesticides was infrequent, of short duration and involved application via a boom on a tractor, a lower risk application method. Consequently, urine DAP metabolite levels in this group were generally low, with 36 out of 96 samples (37.5%) containing detectable levels. Detectable results ranged from 9.00-116.00 mol/mol creatinine. Formulators exposed to OP pesticides were found to have the highest urine DAP metabolite levels (detectable levels 13.20-550.00 mol/mol creatinine), followed by pilots and mixer/loaders (detectable levels 8.40-304.00 mol/mol creatinine) and then farmers. Despite this, pilots and mixer/loaders (particularly mixer/loaders) had the greatest number of samples containing detectable levels (94.4% of samples). The DAP metabolite most frequently detected across all groups was DMTP, which was the only metabolite found in control samples. Levels found in this study are similar to those reported in international research (Takamiya, 1994, Stephens et al., 1996, Simcox et al., 1999, Mills, 2001, Cocker et al., 2002). The observed DAP levels were not associated with a drop in cholinesterase activity among the formulation plant workers, as expected from the literature. Such exposure also is unlikely to be associated with acute health effects. In contrast, there is insufficient scientific knowledge to know whether levels recorded in this study and elsewhere may be associated with long-term, chronic health effects. Notably, DMTP levels also were observed among the presumably 'unexposed' comparison groups. Environmental background level exposures to OPs producing the DAP metabolite DMTP are therefore of potential significance and may be related, at least in part, to consumption of contaminated fruit and vegetables. There is also emerging evidence to suggest that exposure to DAP metabolites themselves through diet and other sources may contribute to the concentration of DAPs, including DMTP in urine, potentially complicating assessment of occupational exposures. Nevertheless, the urine DAP metabolite test was a useful, sensitive indicator of occupational OP pesticide exposure among agricultural workers and may be of use to the industry as part of the risk assessment process. Future research should aim to establish a BEI for the urine DAP test.

The use of veterinary drugs continues to be a challenge since some farmers use drugs for medicinal purposes, while others use them as growth promoters without observing the set withdrawal times. In emerging economies, challenges are experienced in residue testing to ensure residue free animal products. It is therefore necessary to develop a simple, environmentally friendly and cost effective extraction method for veterinary drugs residues. A dispersive liquid-liquid micro-extraction method for simultaneous determination of chloramphenicol, florfenicol and thiamphenicol residues in water, bovine muscle and milk was developed optimised and validated. Analysis was performed with liquid chromatography coupled to electron spray ionization tandem mass spectrometry in negative ion multiple reaction monitoring mode. Dispersive liquid-liquid micro-extraction method development involved optimisation of parameters such as type and volume of extraction solvent, type and volume of disperser solvent and pH. The optimum extraction solvent was dichloromethane at a volume of 250 μL while the optimum disperser solvent was acetonitrile (1 mL) Extraction was found to be optimum at pH 7. The developed method was validated according to Commission decision 2002/657/EC. Linearity. Linearity was observed for water, bovine milk and muscle in the ranges of 0.3 μg kg-1 to 0.9 μg kg-1, 25 μg kg-1 to 100 μg kg-1 and 50 μg kg-1 to 200 μg kg-1 for chloramphenicol, thiamphenicol and florfenicol respectively with regression coefficients ranging between 0.9941 and 0.9999. Limit of detections for CAP, FFC & THAP were 0.082, 3.31, and 2.21 μg kg-1 respectively while Limit of quantifications were 0.163, 7.51 and 6.84 μg kg-1 respectively. The recoveries for water, bovine milk and bovine muscle ranged between 87.2% and 102%. In this study the validated dispersive liquid-liquid micro-extraction has been found to perform very well not only in the water matrix but also in the more complex matrices like bovine milk and muscle. / Chemistry / M. Sc. (Chemistry)

O aumento da emissão de poluentes no meio ambiente tem gerado preocupação com a exposição humana a esses contaminantes, refletindo-se no aumento significativo de pesquisas envolvendo biomonitorizações. De modo geral, o método mais apropriado para interpretar resultados de biomonitorização é descrever tendências ou distribuições dos valores observados na população, e compará-los com uma população de referência, utilizando os valores de referência (VR). Porém, muitos países, incluindo o Brasil, ainda não têm disponíveis valores de referência de base populacional. Dessa forma, para a interpretação dos resultados obtidos em estudos de biomonitorização no Brasil, comumente são utilizados valores preconizados na literatura internacional, que não refletem a realidade da nossa população dificultando o diagnóstico e a solução do problema. O objetivo deste estudo foi derivar valores de referência para chumbo, cádmio, mercúrio e níquel em sangue de crianças e adultos sadios, sem exposição ocupacional a esses metais, residentes no município de São Paulo. Amostras de sangue de 786 adultos (14 a 70 anos) e 538 crianças (6 a 13 anos) foram coletadas entre 2007 e 2008. Questionários foram aplicados para se obter informação a respeito de variáveis que poderiam influenciar os níveis dos metais estudados no sangue. Os valores de referência foram estabelecidos considerando o limite superior do intervalo de confiança a 95% para o percentil 95 da distribuição dos dados obtidos para cada metal. Os VR derivados por faixa etária e gênero para chumbo foram: 32,6 e 42,3 µg/L para o grupo masculino abaixo de 11 anos e acima de 20 anos, respectivamente, no grupo feminino nas mesmas faixas etárias os VR derivados foram 26,2 e 31,1 µg/L. Para cádmio os VR foram de 0,42 e 0,62 µg/L para homens e para mulheres os VR foram 0,19 e 0,56 µg/L, para a mesma faixa etária mencionada. No caso do mercúrio para o grupo masculino os VR foram 1,5 e 3,1 µg/L e para o grupo feminino os VR foram 1,6 e 3,2 µg/L, respectivamente para as faixas etárias mencionadas e, para níquel os VR para homens foram de 3,60 e 3,63 µg/L e para mulheres foram de 3,64 e 3,50 µg/L, respectivamente para as faixas etárias mencionadas. Gênero, idade e hábito de fumar foram as variáveis que apresentaram associação significativa com as concentrações de chumbo e cádmio em sangue. Além dessas, consumo de vísceras e miúdos e área de moradia mostraram estar associados com os níveis de chumbo em sangue e, consumo de destilados para os níveis de cádmio em sangue. Para mercúrio, idade, consumo de peixes e vísceras e miúdos foram os fatores que apresentaram associação significativa com os níveis do metal no sangue. Para níquel em sangue os fatores determinantes foram idade, consumo de peixe, vísceras e miúdos e frango. Os valores de referência obtidos neste estudo poderão subsidiar os diagnósticos de exposição ambiental ao chumbo, cádmio,mercúrio e níquel. / The increase in the emission of pollutants in the environment has raised concern with human exposure to these contaminants, reflected in the significant increase of research involving biomonitoring. In general, the most appropriate method for interpreting biomonitoring results is to describe trends or distributions of observed values in the population, and compare them with a reference population using reference values (RV). However, many countries, including Brazil, still do not have population-based reference values available. Thus, for the interpretation of results obtained in biomonitoring studies in Brazil, values commonly encountered in the international literature are used, which do not reflect the reality of our country\'s population, making difficult to diagnose and fix the problem. The aim of this study was to derive reference values for lead, cadmium, mercury and nickel in blood of healthy children and adults without occupational exposure to these metals residing in the city of São Paulo. Blood samples from 786 adults (14-70 years old) and 538 children (6-13 years old) were collected between 2007 and 2008. Questionnaires were applied to obtain information regarding variables that could influence the levels of the studied metals in blood. Reference values were established considering the upper limit of the 95% confidence interval for the 95th percentile of the distribution of data for each metal. The RV derived by age and gender for lead were: 32.6 and 42.3 µg/L for males below 11 years old and above 20 years old respectively; for females in the same age groups RV were 26.2 and 31.1 µg/L. For cadmium the RV were 0.42 and 0.62 µg/L for men and for women were 0.19 and 0.56 µg/L for the same age groups mentioned. In the case of mercury for the males the RV were 1.5 and 3.1 µg/L and for females were 1.6 and 3.2 µg/L, respectively for the mentioned age groups and for nickel RV for men were 3.60 and 3.63 µg/L and for women were 3.64 and 3.50 µg/L, respectively for the mentioned age groups. Gender, age and smoking were the variables significantly associated with the concentrations of lead and cadmium in blood. Besides these, consumption of viscera and offal and area of residence were associated with levels of lead in blood, and consumption of spirits with levels of cadmium in blood. For mercury, age, consumption of fish, viscera and offal were the factors significantly associated with levels of that metal in the blood. Determinants of nickel in blood were age, consumption of fish, chicken and viscera and offal. The reference values obtained in this study may support the diagnosis of environmental exposure to lead, cadmium, mercury and nickel.

Os hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos (HPAs) são uma classe de substâncias químicas que podem ser geradas na combustão de matéria orgânica, e 17 destas substâncias são consideradas como poluentes prioritários pela Agência de Proteção Ambiental dos EUA (US EPA), em função de seu potencial tóxico e carcinogênico. Para identificar e quantificar os HPAs no ambiente de trabalho por cromatografia gasosa / espectrometria de massas, foram realizadas coletas de amostras ambientais em um incinerador de resíduos de serviços de saúde localizado na região da grande São Paulo e em três fundições de metais nas cidades de Loanda e Santa Isabel do Ivaí, no Estado do Paraná. A concentração de HPAs totais nas amostras ambientais coletadas no Incinerador foi de 0,36 - 1,72 µg/m3; na Fundição 1 de 0,72 - 4,56 µg/m3; na Fundição 2 de 2,32 - 6,52 µg/m3; na Fundição 3 de 0,19 - 3,72 µg/m3. Foi realizada também a coleta de amostras biológicas de trabalhadores expostos e não expostos, para a identificação e quantificação do indicador biológico de exposição o 1-hidroxipireno por cromatografia líquida com detector de fluorescência. A concentração de 1-hidroxipireno nas amostrados biológicas dos trabalhadores no Incinerador apresentou diferença estatisticamente siginificante entre o grupo exposto e o grupo controle; na Fundição 1 houve diferença estatisticamente pouco significante entre os grupos estudados; nas Fundições 2 e 3 não houve diferença estatisticamente significante entre os grupos estudados. / The Polycyclic Aromatics Hydrocarbons (PAH) are a class of chemicals that can to be generated by organic matter burning, and 17 of that chemicals are considered priority pollutant by Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), because their toxicity and carcinogenicity potentials. To identify and to quantitify the PAH at workplace atmosphere by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), it was conducted a environmental sampling in a waste incinerator, settled in the metropolitan São Paulo Region, and at three metals foundry settled in the Loanda City and Santa Isabel do Ivaí City, at Paraná State. The concentration of total PAH in the environmental samples collected in a waste incinerator was 0,36 - 1,72 µg/m3; at metals foundry 1 was 0,72 - 4,56 µg/m3; at metals foundry 2 was 2,32 - 6,52 µg/m3; at metals foundry 3 was 0,19 - 3,72 µg/m3. The biological samples of the workers was collected to identify and to quantitify the biological indicator urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OH-Pyr) by high performance liquid chromatography/fluorescence detector (HPLC-Flu). The 1-OH-Pyr concentration in the biological samples of the exposed and control group in a waste incinerator presented a statistical significant difference; in the metals foundry 1 was observed a slight statistical significant difference; and in the metals foundry 2 and metals foundry 3 was not observed statistical significant difference.

Os hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos (HPAs) são uma classe de substâncias químicas que podem ser geradas na combustão de matéria orgânica, e 17 destas substâncias são consideradas como poluentes prioritários pela Agência de Proteção Ambiental dos EUA (US EPA), em função de seu potencial tóxico e carcinogênico. Para identificar e quantificar os HPAs no ambiente de trabalho por cromatografia gasosa / espectrometria de massas, foram realizadas coletas de amostras ambientais em um incinerador de resíduos de serviços de saúde localizado na região da grande São Paulo e em três fundições de metais nas cidades de Loanda e Santa Isabel do Ivaí, no Estado do Paraná. A concentração de HPAs totais nas amostras ambientais coletadas no Incinerador foi de 0,36 - 1,72 µg/m3; na Fundição 1 de 0,72 - 4,56 µg/m3; na Fundição 2 de 2,32 - 6,52 µg/m3; na Fundição 3 de 0,19 - 3,72 µg/m3. Foi realizada também a coleta de amostras biológicas de trabalhadores expostos e não expostos, para a identificação e quantificação do indicador biológico de exposição o 1-hidroxipireno por cromatografia líquida com detector de fluorescência. A concentração de 1-hidroxipireno nas amostrados biológicas dos trabalhadores no Incinerador apresentou diferença estatisticamente siginificante entre o grupo exposto e o grupo controle; na Fundição 1 houve diferença estatisticamente pouco significante entre os grupos estudados; nas Fundições 2 e 3 não houve diferença estatisticamente significante entre os grupos estudados. / The Polycyclic Aromatics Hydrocarbons (PAH) are a class of chemicals that can to be generated by organic matter burning, and 17 of that chemicals are considered priority pollutant by Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), because their toxicity and carcinogenicity potentials. To identify and to quantitify the PAH at workplace atmosphere by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), it was conducted a environmental sampling in a waste incinerator, settled in the metropolitan São Paulo Region, and at three metals foundry settled in the Loanda City and Santa Isabel do Ivaí City, at Paraná State. The concentration of total PAH in the environmental samples collected in a waste incinerator was 0,36 - 1,72 µg/m3; at metals foundry 1 was 0,72 - 4,56 µg/m3; at metals foundry 2 was 2,32 - 6,52 µg/m3; at metals foundry 3 was 0,19 - 3,72 µg/m3. The biological samples of the workers was collected to identify and to quantitify the biological indicator urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OH-Pyr) by high performance liquid chromatography/fluorescence detector (HPLC-Flu). The 1-OH-Pyr concentration in the biological samples of the exposed and control group in a waste incinerator presented a statistical significant difference; in the metals foundry 1 was observed a slight statistical significant difference; and in the metals foundry 2 and metals foundry 3 was not observed statistical significant difference.