Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-01T18:20:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 daniele_gilvanise_souza.pdf: 2151048 bytes, checksum: cf75e4ab2690e7269aca6ee3a4e5f76b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-12-01 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / One of the biggest challenges in biotechnological production is to produce high value-added products at a low cost. In this context, the filamentous fungus Cunninghamella elegans presents in its cell wall large amounts of chitin and chitosan, but is also able to produce biosurfactants. Chitin and chitosan has a vast field of biotechnological applications, and the bioremediation has been used in the removal and recovery of different waste, pollutant biotransformation and textile effluent discoloration. These biopolymers have linear structures with monomeric units β-1,4-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and β-1,4-D-glucosamine, respectively. Furthermore, the surfactants are compounds synthesized by micro-organisms having properties such as reducing surface and interfacial tension, emulsification, solubilization and dispersion phases, being widely applied in the petrochemical industry. Studies with C. elegans UCP/WFCC 0542 were performed in order to evaluate their biotechnological potential for the production of chitin, chitosan and biosurfactant with the use of agroindustrial residues (corn steep liquor and soybean oil waste), using a central composite design rotational 2². The biopolymers chitin and chitosan were obtained by alkali-acid treatment with 1M sodium hydroxide, and subsequent use of 2% acetic acid. The surface-active properties of the biosurfactant were evaluated by measuring the surface tension of the metabolic liquid cell-free. Biomass production by C. elegans was 8.12 g/L with yields of 0.095 mg/g chitin and 0.036 mg/g of chitosan with a deacetylation degree of 87.44% in the proposed condition. The biosurfactant obtained in condition 8 of planning with 2.15% of corn steep liquor and 5.22% soybean oil waste has demonstrated the best surface tension with 28.20 mN/m-1 and showed stability against to different environmental conditions, having anionic character and its preliminary biochemical composition suggests that the isolated biosurfactant consists of proteins and lipids. Also this proved effective in the removal of petroleum derivatives hydrophobic compounds, removing 55.15% of motor oil, 71.42% of crude petroleum, 77.46% of kerosene and 96.41% of diesel oil in sand beach. Biosurfactant toxicity tests with Brassica oleracea seeds proved their non-toxic nature. The results show the biotechnological potential of C. elegans from alternative and low cost agroindustrial substrates, allowing its use in bioremediation process in environmental recovery. / Um dos grandes desafios na produção biotecnológica é a produção de insumos de alto valor agregado a um baixo custo. Neste contexto, o fungo filamentoso Cunninghamella elegans apresenta em sua parede celular grandes quantidades de quitina e quitosana, como também é capaz de produzir biossurfactantes. A quitina e quitosana apresentam um vasto campo de aplicações biotecnológicas, e na biorremediação vem sendo utilizado na remoção e recuperação de diferentes resíduos, biotransformação de poluentes e descoloração de efluente têxtil. Estes biopolímeros possuem estruturas lineares, com unidades monoméricas β-1,4-N-acetil-D-glicosamina e β-1,4-D-glicosamina, respectivamente. Por outro lado, os biossurfactantes são compostos sintetizados por micro-organismos, apresentando propriedades como a redução da tensão superficial e interfacial, emulsificação, solubilização e dispersão de fases, sendo muito aplicado na indústria petroquímica. Estudos com Cunninghamella elegans UCP/WFCC 0542 foram realizados com objetivo de avaliar o seu potencial biotecnológico para a produção de quitina, quitosana e biossurfactante com a utilização de resíduos agroindustriais (milhocina e óleo de soja pós-fritura), através de um delineamento central composto rotacional de 2². Os biopolímeros quitina e quitosana foram obtidos através de tratamento álcali-ácido, com hidróxido de sódio 1M, e posterior emprego de ácido acético a 2%. As propriedades tensoativas do biossurfactante foram avaliadas pela determinação da tensão superficial do líquido metabólico livre de células. A produção de biomassa por C. elegans foi de 8,12 g/L de com rendimentos de 0,095 mg/g de quitina e 0,036 mg/g de quitosana, com um grau de desacetilação de 87,44%, na condição proposta. O biossurfactante obtido na condição 8 do planejamento com 2,15% de milhocina e 5,22% de óleo de soja pós-fritura demonstrou a melhor tensão superficial com 28,20 mN/m-1 e apresentou estabilidade frente a diferentes condições ambientais, possuindo caráter aniônico e sua composição bioquímica preliminar sugere que o biossurfactante isolado seja constituído por proteínas e lipídeos. Também este se mostrou eficiente na remoção de compostos hidrofóbicos derivados do petróleo, com remoção de 55,15% de óleo de motor, 71,42% de petróleo bruto, 77,46% de querosene e 96,41% de óleo diesel em areia de praia. Testes de toxicidade do biossurfactante com sementes de Brassica oleracea provaram seu caráter atóxico. Os resultados obtidos demonstram o potencial biotecnológico de C. elegans a partir substratos agroindustriais alternativos e de baixo custo, possibilitando o seu emprego em processo de biorremediação na recuperação ambiental.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-01T18:20:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 maria_rosangela_calheiros_alves.pdf: 3828211 bytes, checksum: 8f88ed401400b2866cfb1cd4b380fa2c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-05-13 / Chitosan is a natural polymer derived from deacetylation of chitin, derived from the cell wall of fungi and exoskeletons of crustaceans. Due to its chemical structure exhibits properties of chitosan great biotechnological importance with many applications in the environmental fields, agriculture, cosmetics, among others. To check chitosan production by micro-organism, studies were performed using the fungus Mucor subtilíssimus UCP / WFCC 1262 isolated from soil of the savanna of the state of Pernambuco, through full factorial design of 23, by solid state fermentation (FSS) using sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) supplemented with corn steep liquor (industrial waste) and yeast extract, and the response variables biomass and chitosan. For biomass production testing 5 whose composition 3g sweet potato, 8ml milhocina, and not using yeast extract showed the best result with 13.32 g / L of biomass, chitosan and the center point with 120.96 g / 100g biomass with the following composition: 20 g sweet potatoes, 6ml of corn steep liquor, 0.1 ml of yeast extract. The characterization of chitosan showed a degree of deacetylation of 60%. Microbiological chitosan obtained was tested for its environmental capacity in the discoloration of catiônicao dye, methylene blue (MB), process used in the textile industry having variables such as pH, time and temperature. Results obtained with efficiencies discoloration of methylene blue adsorption of the chitosan showed that the pH 6 was more efficient in bleaching AM biosorption with 92.73% under the condition of 8.30 mg to 20 mg of adsorbent in solution PM aqueous, suggesting its use in bioremediation processes of textile effluents. / Quitosana é um polímero natural derivado da desacetilação da quitina, oriundo da parede celular de fungos e exoesqueletos de crustáceos. Devida a sua estrutura química a quitosana apresenta propriedades de grande importância biotecnológica com diversas aplicações nas áreas ambientais, agricultura, cosméticos entre outras. Para averiguar a produção de quitosana por micro-organismo, estudos foram realizados utilizando o fungo Mucor subtilíssimus UCP/WFCC 1262 isolado do solo da caatinga do estado de Pernambuco, através do planejamento fatorial completo de 23, por fermentação semi sólida (FSS), utilizando batata doce (Ipomoea batatas L.) suplementada com milhocina (resíduo industrial) e extrato de levedura, sendo as variáveis respostas produção de biomassa e quitosana. Para a produção de biomassa o ensaio 5 cuja composição: 3g de batata doce, 8ml de milhocina, e não utilizando extrato de levedura apresentou o melhor resultado com 13,32g/L de biomassa, e para quitosana o ponto central com 120,96 g/100g de biomassa com seguinte composição: 20g de batata doce, 6ml de milhocina, 0,1ml de extrato de levedura. A caracterização da quitosana demonstrou um grau de desacetilação de 60%. A quitosana microbiológica obtida foi testada quanto a sua capacidade ambiental no processo de descoloração do corante catiônicao, azul de metileno (AM), empregado na indústria têxtil tendo como variáveis pH, tempo e temperatura . Os resultados obtidos sobre eficiências de descoloração do azul de metileno pela adsorção da quitosana demonstraram que o pH 6 foi mais eficiente na descoloração do AM com a biossorção de 92,73%, na condição 8,30mg do adsorvente para 20 mg de AM em solução aquosa, sugerindo seu emprego em processos de biorremediação de efluentes têxteis.

Hintergrund: Die Anzahl von Knochenfrakturen im Zusammenhang mit Traumata, sowie osteoporosebedingten Fragilitätsfrakturen oder auch Knochendefekten in Folge von Tumorresektionen steigt stetig an. Die Nutzung autologen, aber auch allogenen und xenogenen Spendermaterials ist limitiert. Eine vielversprechende Alternative sind Knochenkonstrukte, die über einen Tissue Engineering-Ansatz hergestellt werden. Dabei werden resorbierbare Biomaterialien mit biologisch aktiven Substanzen wie Wachstumsfaktoren oder Zellen kombiniert. Diese funktionalisierten Konstrukte regen nach einer Implantation in den Patienten die gesunde Knochensubstanz zur Heilung an und resorbieren idealerweise zugunsten des nachwachsenden, natürlichen Knochens. Eine neuartige Form des Tissue Engineerings ist der 3D-Biodruck („Bioprinting“), bei dem biologisch aktive Proteine und/oder Zellen mit Biomaterialien vermischt werden und anschließend durch ein additives Fertigungsverfahren zu Konstrukten verarbeitet werden. Dies hat einige Vorteile: Z.B. die Fertigung eines patientenspezifischen Konstrukts, welches direkt an den Defekt angepasst ist, aber auch eine gute Einstellbarkeit der Porosität des finalen Konstrukts, was vorteilhaft für die Nährstoffversorgung und Vaskularisierung sein kann. Vor allem erlaubt es eine ortsaufgelöste Verteilung, wodurch beispielsweise Zellen in einem Konstrukt so positioniert werden können, dass diese zu einem gewebeähnlichen Knochenkonstrukt reifen können. Fragestellung: Im letzten Jahrzehnt wurden einige technologische Fragestellungen im Bereich des Bioprintings gelöst. Für das Knochen-Tissue Engineering sind bisher allerdings nur wenige Ansätze präsentiert wurden. Dies liegt unter anderem daran, dass im Bioprinting vor allem Hydrogele verarbeitet werden. Diese sind allerdings sowohl chemisch, als auch mechanisch weit von natürlichem Knochengewebe entfernt und daher weniger als Knochenersatz geeignet. In dieser Arbeit wurde daher untersucht, ob (Bio-)printing eine für Knochen-Tissue Engineering-Strategien geeignete Methode ist. Dazu wurden zwei vielversprechende Ansätze verfolgt: (I) Mehrphasendruck von bioaktiven Calciumphosphatzementen in Kombination mit Zellen oder mit Wachstumsfaktoren funktionalisierten, biologisch aktiven Hydrogelen. (II) Entwicklung einer neuen Bioink, indem ein wachstumsfaktor- oder zellbeladenes Hydrogel mit einem bioaktiven Füllstoff geblendet wird. Die in der Doktorarbeit vorgestellten Studien sollen dabei insbesondere die Entwicklung dieser Ansätze darstellen, sowie deren Grenzen aufzeigen. Zusätzlich sollen grundlegende mechanische und biologische Eigenschaften der biogedruckten Knochenkonstrukte untersucht werden. Materialien und Methoden: Eine Technologie, die das Prinzip des Bioprintings ermöglicht, ist das sogenannte 3D-Plotten. Mit Hilfe eines Multikanal-Plotters können mehrphasige Konstrukte (Ansatz I), aber natürlich auch einphasige Konstrukte (Ansatz II) hergestellt werden. Für Ansatz I wurde ein klinisch zugelassener Calciumphosphatzement (CPC) als bioaktive Komponente verwendet. Für Ansatz II wurde ein bisher noch wenig erforschtes Nanomaterial namens Laponit verwendet, welches großes Potential für das Tissue Engineering besitzt. Die Biopoylmere Alginat und Methylcellulose bildeten die Grundlage für plottbare, wachstumsfaktor- und zellbeladene Pasten (Biomaterial-inks bzw. Bioinks). Zur Entwicklung einer spezifischen Bioink wurde humanes gefrorenes Frischplasma verwendet. Die rheologischen Eigenschaften neu entwickelter Biomaterial-inks und Bioinks, sowie die mechanischen Eigenschaften der geplotteten Hydrogele wurden charakterisiert. Weitere Untersuchungen schlossen die Quellung der Hydrogele und die Porosität der Konstrukte ein. Ein besonderes Augenmerk wurde auf die Formgenauigkeit der geplotteten Strukturen gelegt. Entsprechend der Untersuchungsansätze wurden verschiedene Zelltypen verwendet, insbesondere mesenchymale Stammzellen (MSC), die direkt mit der Paste verdruckt wurden. Als Modellwachstumsfaktor diente der angiogene vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Dessen Freisetzung aus geplotteten Scaffolds wurde mittels ELISA überprüft; die biologische Aktivität wurde anhand des Wachstums von humanen Nabelschnurendothelzellen (HUVEC) untersucht. Ergebnisse: Zunächst wurde untersucht, ob Multikanal-Plotten geeignet ist, um CPC-Konstrukte patientenindividuell zu fertigen. Dies wurde mit Hilfe einer auflösbaren Methylcellulosepaste erreicht. Dieses Verfahren erlaubte die Herstellung von inneren Kavitäten, die mit anderen Herstellungsverfahren nicht möglich gewesen wären. Darüber hinaus konnte aus einem CT-Scan einer Hand ein Kahnbein extrahiert und virtuell modelliert werden, welches mit hoher Formgenauigkeit geplottet werden konnte. Es wurde gezeigt, dass dies auch auf biphasige Konstrukte aus CPC und einer Bioink anwendbar ist. Dies wurde durch die Entwicklung und Verarbeitung von Bioinks ermöglicht. Biogedruckte Zellen können in vitro und in vivo spezifische biologische Effekte bewirken. Dazu wurden innerhalb der Arbeit zwei Bioinks als plottbare Zellträgermaterialien entwickelt. Eine Bioink enthielt das Nanomaterial Laponit (Ansatz II), welches bereits in anderen Studien vorteilhafte Effekte für Knochen-Tissue Engineering-Ansätze gezeigt hat. Die neuentwickelte Laponit-haltige Bioink erlaubte die Fabrikation von Konstrukten mit hoher Formgenauigkeit. Darüber hinaus war die Zellviabilität, sowie die Zelldichteentwicklung erhöht im Vergleich zu einer Laponit-freien Kontrolle. Da Laponit eine heterogene Ladungsverteilung aufweist, wurde überprüft, inwieweit es ein geeignetes Freisetzungssystem für VEGF darstellt. Scaffolds, die aus einer VEGF-haltigen Paste hergestellt wurden, wiesen ein deutlich verändertes Freisetzungsprofil in Anwesenheit von Laponit auf, als Scaffolds ohne Laponit. So konnte eine initiale Freisetzung (Burstrelease) vermieden und gleichzeitig eine gleichmäßige Freisetzung beobachtet werden. VEGF war auch nach längerer Zeit im Scaffold noch biologisch aktiv. Die zweite Bioink wurde auf Basis gefrorenen, menschlichen Frischplasmas entwickelt. Blutplasma enthält Fibrinogen, das eine RGD-Sequenz für die Anheftung von MSC besitzt. Biogedruckte MSC, aber auch präosteoblastäre Zellen, zeigten eine hohe Neigung, sich in der Bioink aufzuspreizen, was für eingekapselte Zellen erschwert ist. Die plasmahaltige Bioink war dazu geeignet, zusammen mit CPC zu biphasigen Konstrukten (Ansatz I) verarbeitet zu werden. \par Dazu musste zunächst ein Postprozessierungsprotokoll für biphasige Konstrukte aus CPC und zellhaltigen Bioinks entwickelt werden. Aus vorherigen Studien ist bekannt, dass geplottete CPC-Konstrukte in wässrigen Lösungen Mikrorisse bilden, die die mechanischen Eigenschaften signifikant verschlechtern. Die Ausbildung der Mikrorisse kann durch eine Aushärtung in wasserdampfgesättigter Atmosphäre vermieden werden. In biphasigen Konstrukten mit Bioinks sollte diese Aushärtungsphase allerdings nur kurz sein, da eine lange Inkubation ohne wässrige Zellmedien zu einem Absterben der biogedruckten Zellen führen würde. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Inkubation für 20 min in wasserdampfgesättigter Atmosphäre ausreichend ist, um die Ausbildung von Mikrorissen im CPC zu vermeiden. Diese Zeitspanne konnte von den Zellen toleriert werden. In Kombination mit der plasmahaltigen Bioink wurde eine starke Proliferation und osteogene Reifung von biogedruckten präosteoblastären Vorläufern beobachtet. Schlussfolgerungen: In der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit wurde das Prinzip des extrusionsbasierten Biodrucks (3D-Plotten) verwendet, um biofunktionelle Konstrukte herzustellen. Dies erfolgte entweder durch die Beladung mit Wachstumsfaktoren oder mit Zellen vor der Fabrikation der Konstrukte. Bioaktive Materialien wurden entweder durch Multikanal-Plotten oder durch Supplementierung einer Bioink eingebracht. Beide Ansätze können prinzipiell sogar miteinander kombiniert werden. Die erzielten Ergebnisse belegen, dass Bioprinting eine geeignete Methode für das Knochen-Tissue Engineering darstellt. Patientenindividualisierte Konstrukte können mit dieser Technologie gefertigt werden. Auf diesen Ergebnissen aufbauend können weitere Untersuchungen in vivo die Wirksamkeit der vorgestellten Ansätze überprüfen und neue Therapieansätze für die Heilung von Knochendefekten entwickelt werden.:Abstract 9 Zusammenfassung 13 Index of Abbreviations 19 List of Figures 20 Preface 23 i generalis 1 introduction to the topic 29 1.1 Background 29 1.2 Terminology 29 1.3 Physiological Properties of Bone Tissue 31 1.3.1 Composition of Bone 31 1.3.2 Bone Cytology 33 1.3.3 Crosstalk 34 1.4 Bone Grafting 34 1.4.1 Biopolymers 35 1.4.2 Calcium Phosphates 38 1.4.3 Nanoclays 41 1.5 Additive Manufacturing in Medicine & Bioprinting 43 1.5.1 Additive Manufacturing in Tissue Engineering 43 1.5.2 Bioprinting Techniques 44 1.6 Bioinks & Biomaterial Inks 48 1.6.1 Rheology 48 1.6.2 Plottability & Shape Fidelity 49 1.6.3 Post-Processing 52 1.6.4 Biocompatiblity & Biodegradation 53 1.6.5 The Biofabrication Window 53 2 aim of the thesis 55 2.1 Preliminary Studies 55 2.2 Research Questions 57 ii specialis 3 A methylcellulose hydrogel as support for 3D plotting of complex shaped calcium phosphate scaffolds 61 4 Development of a clay based bioink for 3D cell printing for skeletal application 77 5 Bioprinting of mineralized constructs utilizing multichannel plotting of a self-setting calcium phosphate cement and a cell-laden bioink 97 6 A novel plasma-based bioink stimulates cell proliferation and differentiation in bioprinted, mineralized constructs 113 iii conclusio 7 Summary & Conclusion 133 7.1 Bioprinting of bone tissue constructs 133 7.2 Technological Improvements 134 7.3 Bioink Development 136 7.4 Limitations & Future Research Directions 138 Bibliography 140 Danke 155 Appendix Erklärungen zur Eröffnung des Promotionsverfahrens 165 Erklärung über die Einhaltung gesetzlicher Bestimmungen 166 Auszug aus dem Journal Citation Report 166 Conferences 167 / Background: The number of trauma-related bone fractures, fragility fractures resulting from osteoporosis or bone defects after tumor resections is increasing. The usability of autologous, but also allogenous and xenogenous bone grafts is limited. Bone grafts being manufactured using a tissue engineering approach are a promising alternative. For this, resorbable biomaterials are combined with biological components such as cells and growth factors. These functionalized constructs stimulate the formation of novel bone tissue after implantation in the patient and resorb in favor of regrowing, native bone. A new form of tissue engineering is 3D bioprinting. Biologically active proteins and/or cells are mixed with biomaterials and get fabricated to constructs by a convenient additive manufacturing technology. This offers great advantages. For example, the patient-specific tissue engineered constructs can be manufactured fitting exactly to the respective defect. Further, it allows full control about the porosity of the final construct which is considered to be advantageous for nutrient supply and vascularization. Most crucial, it allows the spatial distribution of cells within the three-dimensional construct, which facilitate the maturation of the construct to the tissue-like graft. Research Questions: In the last decade some technological challenges in the field of bioprinting have been solved. Nevertheless, for bone tissue engineering only a small number of approaches had been developed. One of the reasons for this is that bioprinting technologies usually enable the processing of materials that are chemically and mechanically rather distant from the bone, particularly hydrogels. These materials are less suitable as bone substitutes. The aim of this work was to research new approaches of extrusion-based (bio-)printing for bone tissue engineering strategies. For this purpose two promising approaches were investigated: (I) Multichannel printing of bioactive calcium phosphate cements in combination with biologically active hydrogels which were loaded either with growth factors or cells. (II) Development of a new bioink by supplementation of growth factor- or cell-laden hydrogels with a bioactive filler material. The presented studies of this thesis demonstrate the feasibility of these approaches as well as their limits. In addition, fundamental mechanical and biological properties of the bioprinted bone constructs are investigated. Materials and Methods: A technology that makes the principle of bioprinting possible is the so-called 3D plotting. With the aid of a multichannel plotter, multiphasic constructs can be fabricated (approach I), but of course also monophasic constructs are possible (approach II). For approach I, a clinically certified calcium phosphate cement (CPC) was used as bioactive component. For approach II, a less investigated nanomaterial called Laponite was used which was shown before to hold great potential for tissue engineering applications. The biopolymers alginate and methylcellulose formed the basis for plottable, growth factor-laden (biomaterial inks) and cell-laden (bioinks) pastes. For the development of one specific bioink, human fresh frozen plasma was used. Rheological properties of the newly developed biomaterial inks and bioinks were characterized, additionally mechanical properties of plotted constructs were investigated. Further studies investigated the swelling of the hydrogels and the porosity of the constructs. Particular attention was payed to the shape fidelity of the plotted structures. Different cell types were used according to the aim of the subject of research; special attention was payed to the use of mesenchymal stem cells which were plotted directly in combination with the biomaterial, forming the bioink. The angiogenic vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was used as model protein for release studies from bioprinted structures; its biological activity was investigated by proliferation studies of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Results Firstly, it was investigated whether multichannel plotting is a suitable technology for the fabrication of patient-specific CPC constructs. This was achieved by plotting of a fugitive methylcellulose support ink. This procedure allowed the manufacturing of inner cavities which would not have been possible with other scaffold fabrication methods. Moreover, it was possible to extract a scaphoid bone from a CT scan of a human hand which was modeled virtually and fabricated subsequently with high shape fidelity. Later it was demonstrated that this procedure can be adapted to biphasic constructs consisting of CPC and cell-laden hydrogels. This was achieved by developing and processing bioinks. Bioprinted cells can evoke biological effects in vitro and in vivo. For this purpose two bioinks were developed within this work acting as cell carrier materials. The first bioink contained the nano material Laponite (approach II) which has demonstrated positive effects for bone tissue engineering before. The novel Laponite-based bioink enabled the fabrication of constructs with high shape fidelity. Furthermore, cell viability and cell density were increased compared to a Laponite-free control. Since Laponite offers a heterogeneous charge distribution, it was investigated whether it is a suitable delivery system for VEGF. Scaffolds with Laponite demonstrated a distinct different release profile compared to Laponite-free scaffolds. Thus an initial burst-like release could be avoided and at the same time a uniform release could be observed. The released VEGF was biologically active also after longer time in the scaffold. The second bioink was developed using fresh frozen human blood plasma. Plasma contains fibrinogen which holds a RGD motif for the attachment of MSC. Bioprinted MSC and preosteoblastic cells showed a high affinity to spread within the bioink, which is difficult to achieve for encapsulated cells. The plasma-based bioink was suitable for the combined fabrication of biphasic constructs with CPC (approach I). To achieve this, firstly a suitable post-processing for biphasic constructs consisting of CPC and cell-laden bioinks had to be developed. From previous studies it is known that plotted CPC constructs form microcracks in aqueous media during setting, which impair mechanical properties. The formation of the microcracks can be avoided by setting in water-saturated atmosphere. In biphasic constructs with bioinks this phase should only be short since a long incubation in absence of aqueous cell culture media would lead to cell death within the bioink. It could be shown that incubation for 20 min in water-saturated atmosphere is convenient to avoid the formation of microcracks in CPC strands. This time could be tolerated by the cells. In combination with the plasma-based bioink, a strong proliferation and osteogenic maturation of bioprinted preosteoblastic cells could be observed. Conclusion: In this thesis, the principle of extrusion-based bioprinting (3D plotting) was used to fabricate biofunctionalized constructs. This was achieved by loading cells or growth factors before manufacturing of the constructs. Bioactive materials could be embedded into the constructs by either multichannel plotting or by supplementation of a bioink with a bioactive filler material. In principle both approaches even could be combined with each other. The results obtained prove that bioprinting is a suitable method for bone tissue engineering. Patient-specific constructs can be fabricated by this technology. Based on these results, further studies should be performed in vivo to investigate the potency of the approaches for the development of new regenerative therapies to treat bone defects.:Abstract 9 Zusammenfassung 13 Index of Abbreviations 19 List of Figures 20 Preface 23 i generalis 1 introduction to the topic 29 1.1 Background 29 1.2 Terminology 29 1.3 Physiological Properties of Bone Tissue 31 1.3.1 Composition of Bone 31 1.3.2 Bone Cytology 33 1.3.3 Crosstalk 34 1.4 Bone Grafting 34 1.4.1 Biopolymers 35 1.4.2 Calcium Phosphates 38 1.4.3 Nanoclays 41 1.5 Additive Manufacturing in Medicine & Bioprinting 43 1.5.1 Additive Manufacturing in Tissue Engineering 43 1.5.2 Bioprinting Techniques 44 1.6 Bioinks & Biomaterial Inks 48 1.6.1 Rheology 48 1.6.2 Plottability & Shape Fidelity 49 1.6.3 Post-Processing 52 1.6.4 Biocompatiblity & Biodegradation 53 1.6.5 The Biofabrication Window 53 2 aim of the thesis 55 2.1 Preliminary Studies 55 2.2 Research Questions 57 ii specialis 3 A methylcellulose hydrogel as support for 3D plotting of complex shaped calcium phosphate scaffolds 61 4 Development of a clay based bioink for 3D cell printing for skeletal application 77 5 Bioprinting of mineralized constructs utilizing multichannel plotting of a self-setting calcium phosphate cement and a cell-laden bioink 97 6 A novel plasma-based bioink stimulates cell proliferation and differentiation in bioprinted, mineralized constructs 113 iii conclusio 7 Summary & Conclusion 133 7.1 Bioprinting of bone tissue constructs 133 7.2 Technological Improvements 134 7.3 Bioink Development 136 7.4 Limitations & Future Research Directions 138 Bibliography 140 Danke 155 Appendix Erklärungen zur Eröffnung des Promotionsverfahrens 165 Erklärung über die Einhaltung gesetzlicher Bestimmungen 166 Auszug aus dem Journal Citation Report 166 Conferences 167

Tesis por compendio / [ES] La industria alimentaria ha mostrado un enorme interés por desarrollar nuevos productos a base de fruta con el fin de satisfacer la demanda saludable y sostenible de productos alimentarios de los consumidores. En este sentido, un puré de naranja liofilizado podría representar una opción viable. La liofilización del puré da lugar a una torta que puede consumirse directamente como snack, o puede triturarse para obtener un polvo que puede utilizarse para una amplia gama de aplicaciones. Una optimización adecuada de las condiciones de liofilización podría ayudar a reducir su duración sin afectar a las características del producto final. Sin embargo, los alimentos deshidratados pueden presentar problemas de colapso estructural relacionados con su baja temperatura de transición vítrea. En este sentido, una técnica frecuente para la estabilización de estos productos deshidratados es la incorporación de biopolímeros de alto peso molecular. El objetivo de esta Tesis ha sido el diseño del proceso de liofilización para la obtención de un snack de naranja. Para ello se ha estudiado la influencia de diferentes combinaciones de biopolímeros en la estabilidad física del puré de naranja liofilizado (snack de naranja) y en la bioaccesibilidad in vitro de sus compuestos bioactivos. Asimismo, se ha evaluado su efecto en las propiedades de flujo en aire y de rehidratación del polvo de naranja. Se ha trabajado con diferentes combinaciones de goma Arábiga, maltodextrina, almidón sustituido por grupos octenil succínico, almidón nativo de maíz, fibras de guisante y de bambú. Los resultados mostraron la necesidad de incorporar estos biopolímeros para aumentar la actividad de agua crítica y el contenido de agua crítico para la transición vítrea, el cual se ha relacionado con la pérdida de la textura del snack. Si bien ninguna de las mezclas de biopolímeros fue mejor que las otras en higroscopicidad, carácter anti-plastificante, color y propiedades mecánicas del snack, la mezcla GA con FB fue la que mejoró la bioaccesibilidad de la vitamina C (VC) y de los compuestos fenólicos totales (TP). Además, esta misma combinación fue la que ofreció uno de los tiempos de mojado más cortos y una menor viscosidad del producto rehidratado, deseado para un producto tipo zumo. Por otra parte, se ha estudiado el impacto de las condiciones de liofilización en el consumo de energía del proceso y en la calidad del snack formulado con GA y FB. Las variables del proceso consideradas han sido la velocidad de congelación (convencional y abatidor), la temperatura de bandeja (30, 40, 50 ºC) y presión de trabajo (5, 100 Pa) durante el secado. Menor presión y mayor temperatura promovieron un ligero mayor secado de las muestras, obteniendo un producto más crujiente, con un color amarillo menos intenso, mejor preservación de VC y ß-caroteno (BC), y una reducción significativa, de hasta un 75%, en el consumo de energía total durante el secado, debido a la reducción del tiempo del proceso. La velocidad de congelación no tuvo impacto significativo sobre ninguna de las propiedades evaluadas. Por tanto, las condiciones recomendadas para el secado por liofilización son 5 Pa de presión y 50 ºC como temperatura de bandeja. Por último, se evaluó la estabilidad física y de los compuestos bioactivos y actividad antioxidante del snack almacenado en bolsas zip, a 4 y 20 ºC, durante 6 meses, simulando condiciones domésticas de almacenamiento. Como resultado, la muestra ganó cierta humedad, con la consecuente pérdida en porosidad y carácter crujiente a partir de los 2 meses. Asimismo, la luminosidad del snack almacenado a 20 ºC disminuyó pasados 2 meses, probablemente debido a las reacciones de pardeamiento, que incluyen la degradación de la VC (20%). BC sufrió una gran disminución, desde el inicio del almacenamiento y más cuanto mayor fue la temperatura. Por lo tanto, para este producto se recomienda un almacenamiento en refrigeración para una mejor preservación de los compuestos bioactivos. / [CA] La indústria alimentària ha mostrat un enorme interés per desenvolupar nous productes a base de fruita amb la finalitat de satisfer la demanda saludable i sostenible de productes alimentaris dels consumidors. En aquest sentit, un puré de taronja liofilitzat podria representar una opció viable. La liofilització del puré dona lloc a una coca que pot consumir-se directament com a snack, o pot triturar-se per a obtindre una pols que pot utilitzar-se per a una àmplia gamma d'aplicacions. Una optimització adequada de les condicions de liofilització podria ajudar a reduir la seua duració sense afectar les característiques del producte final. No obstant això, els aliments deshidratats poden presentar problemes de col·lapse estructural relacionats amb la seua baixa temperatura de transició vítria. En aquest sentit, una tècnica freqüent per a l'estabilització d'aquests productes deshidratats és la incorporació de biopolímers d'alt pes molecular. L'objectiu d'aquesta Tesi ha sigut el disseny del procés de liofilització per a l'obtenció d'un snack de taronja. Per a això s'ha estudiat la influència de diferents combinacions de biopolímers en l'estabilitat física del puré de taronja liofilitzat (snack de taronja) i en la bioaccessibilitat in vitro dels seus compostos bioactius. Així mateix, s'ha avaluat el seu efecte en les propietats de flux en aire i de rehidratació de la pols de taronja. S'ha treballat amb diferents combinacions de goma Aràbiga, maltodextrina, midó substituït per grups octenil succínic, midó natiu de dacsa, fibres de pésol i de bambú. Els resultats van mostrar la necessitat d'incorporar aquests biopolímers per a augmentar l'activitat d'aigua crítica i el contingut d'aigua crític per a la transició vítria, el qual s'ha relacionat amb la pèrdua de la textura del snack. Si bé cap de les mescles de biopolímers va ser millor que les altres en higroscopicitat, caràcter anti-plastificant, color i propietats mecàniques del snack, la mescla GA amb FB va ser la que va millorar la bioaccessibilitat de la vitamina C (VC) i dels compostos fenòlics totals (TP). A més, aquesta mateixa combinació va ser la que va oferir un dels temps de mullat més curts i una menor viscositat del producte rehidratat, desitjat per a un producte tipus suc. D'altra banda, s'ha estudiat l'impacte de les condicions de liofilització en el consum d'energia del procés i en la qualitat del snack formulat amb GA i FB. Les variables del procés considerades han sigut la velocitat de congelació (convencional i abatedor), la temperatura de safata (30, 40, 50 °C) i pressió de treball (5, 100 Pa) durant l'assecat. Menor pressió i major temperatura van promoure un lleuger major assecat de les mostres, obtenint un producte més cruixent, amb un color groc menys intens, millor preservació de VC i ß-caroté (BC), i una reducció significativa, de fins a un 75%, en el consum d'energia total durant l'assecat, a causa de la reducció del temps del procés. La velocitat de congelació no va tindre impacte significatiu sobre cap de les propietats avaluades. Per tant, les condicions recomanades per a l'assecat per liofilització són 5 Pa de pressió i 50 °C com a temperatura de safata. Finalment, es va avaluar l'estabilitat física i dels compostos bioactius i activitat antioxidant del snack emmagatzemat en bosses zip, a 4 i 20 °C, durant 6 mesos, simulant condicions domèstiques d'emmagatzematge. Com a resultat, la mostra va guanyar una certa humitat, amb la conseqüent pèrdua en porositat i caràcter cruixent a partir dels 2 mesos. Així mateix, la lluminositat del snack emmagatzemat a 20 °C va disminuir passats 2 mesos, probablement a causa de les reaccions de enfosquiment, que inclouen la degradació de la VC (20%). BC va patir una gran disminució, des de l'inici de l'emmagatzematge i més com més gran va ser la temperatura. Per tant, per a aquest producte es recomana un emmagatzematge en refrigeració per a una millor preservació dels compostos bioactius. / [EN] Food industries have showed a huge interest in developing new fruit-based products to satisfy the healthy and sustainable demand of food products by consumers. In this sense, offering a freeze-dried orange puree could represent a feasible option. Freeze-drying the puree results in a cake that can be consumed directly as a snack, or it can be crushed to obtain a powder that can be used for a wide range of applications. A suitable optimisation of the freeze-drying conditions could help to reduce its duration without affecting the characteristics of the final product. However, dehydrated foods may present problems of structural collapse related to its low glass transition temperature. In this sense, an approach for the stabilisation of dehydrated products is the incorporation of high molecular weight biopolymers. The aim of this Thesis has been the design of the freeze-drying process to obtain an orange snack. The influence of different combinations of biopolymers on the physical stability of the freeze-dried orange puree (orange snack) and on the in vitro bioaccessibility of its bioactive compounds has been studied. Their effect on the air flow and rehydration properties of an orange powder obtained after crushing the snack has also been evaluated. Different combinations of gum Arabic, maltodextrin, starch substituted with octenyl succinic groups, native corn starch, pea and bamboo fibres were used. The results showed the need to incorporate these biopolymers to increase the critical water activity and the critical water content for the glass transition, which has been related to the loss of snack texture. Although none of the biopolymer combinations was better than the others in terms of hygroscopicity, anti-plasticising character, colour, and mechanical properties of the snack, the GA mixed with FB was the one that improved the bioaccessibility of vitamin C (VC) and total phenolic compounds (TP). This same combination offered the shortest wetting times and a lower viscosity of the rehydrated product, which is desirable for a juice-type product. Also, the impact of the freeze-drying conditions on the energy consumption of the process and on the quality of the snack formulated with GA and FB has been studied. The process variables considered were freezing rate (conventional and blast freezer), shelf temperature (30, 40, 50 ºC) and working pressure (5, 100 Pa) during drying. Lower pressure and higher temperature promoted a slightly higher drying of the samples, which resulted in a crispier product, as well as a less intense yellow colour. However, at the sensory level, there was no significant preference for any of the samples processed under the different conditions studied. In addition, VC and ß-carotene (BC) were better preserved under these conditions, conditions which significantly reduced, up to 75%, the total energy consumption during drying, due to the reduction of the process time. The freezing rate had no significant impact on any of the properties evaluated. Therefore, the recommended conditions for freeze-drying to maximise the preservation of bioactive compounds, with a lower energy consumption, while providing a snack perceived as a crispy product by consumers, are 5 Pa pressure and 50 ºC as shelf temperature. Finally, the physical stability and the stability of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of the snack stored in zip bags at 4 and 20 ºC for 6 months, simulating domestic storage conditions, was evaluated. As a result, a certain moisture gain of the sample was observed, with a consequent loss in porosity and crispness after 2 months. Also, the luminosity of the snack stored at 20°C decreased after 2 months, probably due to browning reactions, including degradation of VC (20%). BC suffered a large decrease, from the beginning of storage and more so the higher the temperature. Therefore, refrigerated storage is recommended for better preservation of the bioactive compounds of this product. / Silva Espinoza, MA. (2021). Design of the process of obtaining a freeze-dried orange puree. Formulation, freeze-drying variables, and storage conditions [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/170354 / TESIS / Compendio

[ES] La Tesis Doctoral investigó el uso de la resina de pino (colofonia o gum rosin, GR) y sus derivados modificados químicamente, como aditivos sostenibles de biopolímeros basados en almidón termoplástico. El trabajo se dividió en seis secciones de investigación. Dos trabajos previos y cuatro trabajos medulares, cada uno de los cuales constituyeron los objetivos específicos de la investigación. Los trabajos previos permitieron determinar que la resina de pino y derivados pueden ser utilizados tanto en matrices poliméricas sintéticas (policloruro de vinilo, PVC), como en matrices poliméricas biodegradables (una mezcla de poliácido láctico y poli(butilén adipato co-tereftalato - PLA/PBAT). En el caso del PVC, se estudió el efecto de un derivado de colofonia, el trietilén glicol de colofonia (TEGR), como aditivo natural para incrementar la viscosidad en plastisoles basados en PVC. En el caso de estudio con una matriz biodegradable, se usó colofonia sin modificar (GR), como agente de control de tamaño de dominios de PBAT para aumentar la tenacidad de formulaciones basadas en una mezcla de PLA/PBAT. Luego, se estudió el uso de la resina de pino y derivados como aditivos de biopolímeros basados en almidón termoplástico (TPS) y el efecto de las resinas en las diferentes formulaciones de estos materiales. En primera instancia se estudiaron y establecieron las condiciones de procesamiento para obtener un almidón totalmente plastificado (almidón termoplástico - TPS) utilizando mezclas de almidón de maíz plastificado con glicerol y agua; procesadas a diferentes perfiles de temperatura de extrusión. En una siguiente instancia, se estudiaron mezclas de TPS con cinco derivados de resina de colofonia: colofonia sin modificar (GR), colofonia deshidrogenada (RD), colofonia modificada con anhidrido maleico (CM) y dos ésteres de colofonia, un pentaeritritol éster (LF) y un éster de glicerol grado alimenticio (UG). A continuación, se estudió el comportamiento de un material de interés comercial al ser aditivado con derivados de la resina de pino. Para ello, se usó colofonia sin modificar (GR) y dos ésteres de pentaeritritol de colofonia (LF, y UT). La matriz de estudio fue un biopolímero del tipo Mater-Bi (Mater-Bi® NF 866 (Mater-Bi), una mezcla comercial basada en almidón termoplástico (TPS), un poliéster alifático-aromático (polibutilén adipato co-tereftalato) (PBAT) y poly-(ε)-caprolactona (PCL)). Finalmente, se estudiaron los materiales formulados con el material de interés comercial (Mater-Bi) y las resinas y derivados seleccionados (GR, LF y UT) desde un punto de vista microscópico, para determinar a profundidad las interacciones de los componentes del Mater-Bi con cada una de las resinas. Los resultados obtenidos se muestran favorables y prometedores pues demuestran que las resinas de pino y sus derivados son una alternativa viable para ser usados como aditivos naturales en una diversidad de materiales, tanto sintéticos como biobasados y biodegradables. Además, las resinas de pino y colofonia son materiales sostenibles que proviene de fuentes 100% naturales y renovables, por lo que su uso supone una disminución del impacto en el medio ambiente. / [CA] La Tesi Doctoral va investigar l'ús de la resina de pi (colofònia o gum rosin, GR) i els seus derivats modificats químicament, com a additius sostenibles de biopolímers basats en midó termoplàstic. El treball es va dividir en sis seccions d'investigació. Dos treballs previs i quatre treballs medul·lars, cadascun dels quals van constituir els objectius específics de la investigació. Els treballs previs van permetre determinar que la resina de pi i derivats poden ser utilitzats tant en matrius polimèriques sintètiques (policlorur de vinil, PVC), com en matrius polimèriques biodegradables (una mescla de poliácido làctic i poli(butilén adipat co-tereftalato - PLA/PBAT). En el cas del PVC, es va estudiar l'efecte d'un derivat de colofònia, el trietilén glicol de colofònia (TEGR), com a additiu natural per a incrementar la viscositat en plastisoles basats en PVC. En el cas d'estudi amb una matriu biodegradable, es va usar colofònia sense modificar (GR), com a agent de control de grandària de dominis de PBAT per a augmentar la tenacitat de formulacions basades en una mescla de PLA/PBAT. Després, es va estudiar l'ús de la resina de pi i derivats com a additius de biopolímers basats en midó termoplàstic (TPS) i l'efecte de les resines en les diferents formulacions d'aquests materials. En primera instància es van estudiar i van establir les condicions de processament per a obtindre un midó totalment plastificat (midó termoplàstic - TPS) utilitzant mescles de midó de dacsa plastificada amb glicerol i aigua; processades a diferents perfils de temperatura d'extrusió. En una següent instància, es van estudiar mescles de TPS amb cinc derivats de resina de colofònia: colofònia sense modificar (GR), colofònia deshidrogenada (RD), colofònia modificada amb anhidrido maleic (CM) i dos èsters de colofònia, un pentaeritritol èster (LF) i un èster de glicerol grau alimentós (UG). A continuació, es va estudiar el comportament d'un materials d'interés comercial en ser aditivado amb derivats de la resina de pi. Per a això, es va usar colofònia sense modificar (GR) i dos èsters de pentaeritritol de colofònia (LF, i UT). La matriu d'estudi va ser un biopolímer del tipus Mater-Bi (Mater-Bi® NF 866 (Mater-Bi), una mescla comercial basada en midó termoplàstic (TPS), un polièster alifàtic-aromàtic (polibutilén adipat co-tereftalato) (PBAT) i poly-(ε)-caprolactona (PCL)). Finalment, es van estudiar els materials formulats d'interés comercial (Mater-Bi) i les resines i derivats seleccionats (GR, LF i UT) des d'un punt de vista microscòpic, per a determinar a profunditat les interaccions dels components del Mater-Bi amb cadascuna de les resines. Els resultats obtinguts es mostren favorables i prometedors perquè demostren que les resines de pi i els seus derivats són una alternativa viable per a ser usats com a additius naturals en una diversitat de materials, tant sintètics com biobasados i biodegradables. A més, les resines de pi i colofònia són materials sostenibles que prové de fonts 100% naturals i renovables, per la qual cosa el seu ús suposa una disminució de l'impacte en el medi ambient. / [EN] The Doctoral Thesis investigated the use of pine resin (colophony or gum rosin, GR) and its chemically modified derivatives, as sustainable additives for biopolymers based on thermoplastic starch (TPS). The work was divided into six research sections. Two previous studies and four core studies, each of which constituted the specific objectives of the research. Previous studies made it possible to determine that gum rosin and derivatives can be used both in synthetic polymeric matrices (polyvinyl chloride, PVC) and in biodegradable polymeric matrices (a blend of polyacid lactic acid and poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate - PLA/PBAT). In the case of PVC, the effect of a rosin derivative, triethylene glycol ester of gum rosin (TEGR), was studied as a natural additive to increase the viscosity in PVC-based plastisols. In the case of a study with a biodegradable matrix, unmodified rosin (GR) was used as a PBAT domain size control agent to increase the toughness of formulations based on a PLA/PBAT blend. Then, the use of gum rosin and derivatives as additives of biopolymers based on thermoplastic starch (TPS) and the effect of the resins in the different formulations of these materials were studied. In the first instance, the processing conditions were studied to obtain a fully plasticized starch (thermoplastic starch - TPS) using mixtures of plasticized corn starch with glycerol and water; processed at different extrusion temperature profiles. In the next instance, blends of TPS with five rosin derivatives were studied: unmodified rosin (GR), dehydrogenated rosin (RD), maleic anhydride-modified rosin (CM) and two rosin esters, a pentaerythritol ester (LF), and a food-grade glycerol ester of gum rosin (UG). Next, the behavior of a commercial interest material when added with derivatives of gum rosin was studied. Unmodified gum rosin (GR) and two pentaerythritol esters of gum rosin (LF and UT) were used. The studied matrix was a Mater-Bi type biopolymer (Mater-Bi® NF 866 (Mater-Bi), a commercial blend based on thermoplastic starch (TPS), an aliphatic-aromatic polyester (polybutylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT ) and poly-(ε)-caprolactone (PCL)). Finally, the formulated materials were studied from a microscopic point of view, to determine in-depth the interactions of the components of Mater-Bi with each of the gum rosin and derivatives resins. The results obtained are favorable and promising as they show that gum rosin and its derivatives are a viable alternative to be used as natural additives in a variety of materials, both synthetic and biobased and biodegradable. In addition, gum rosin and derivatives resins are sustainable materials that come from 100% natural and renewable sources, so their use reduces their impact on the environment. / Agradezco a la Secretaría de Educación Superior, Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (SENESCYT) por el apoyo económico en parte de mis estudios doctorales. / Aldas Carrasco, MF. (2021). Uso de derivados de colofonia como aditivos sostenibles en biopolímeros de almidón termoplástico (TPS) [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/171770 / TESIS

[ES] De forma general, el trabajo realizado durante la presente tesis doctoral se ha enfocado al diseño y optimización de catalizadores heterogéneos basados en Pd y Ru soportado sobre óxidos metálicos y materiales carbonosos. A fin de optimizar los catalizadores se han relacionado los ensayos catalíticos con las propiedades físico-químicas de los materiales mediante diferentes técnicas (XPS, HAADF-STEM, Fotoluminiscencia, IR, ¿) siguiendo un proceso iterativo de ensayo-caracterización-optimización. En concreto, la presente tesis doctoral se puede dividir en dos partes en función de las reacciones estudiadas: 1. Durante la primera parte, capítulo 3, se han preparado catalizadores basados en Au, Pd y Pd(OH)2 soportado sobre diferentes óxidos metálicos con objeto de realizar el homoacoplamiento oxidativo de benzoato de metilo en ausencia de disolvente y empleando oxígeno como único agente oxidante. Se ha conseguido identificar la especie activa como clústeres de Pd mediante el empleo de espectroscopia de infrarrojo de adsorción de CO y fotoluminiscencia. Con este conocimiento se ha podido diseñar un pre-tratamiento de activación específico para maximizar la actividad catalítica con el cual se ha logrado obtener un rendimiento catalítico similar al del catalizador homogéneo de Pd(OAc)2. 2. En la segunda parte de la tesis, se ha estudiado la hidroformilación de 1-hexeno empleando catalizadores alternativos basados en Ru. En particular, durante el capítulo 4 se han desarrollado catalizadores de Ru soportados sobre una matriz orgánica-inorgánica compuesta por un biopolímero natural, quitosán, y SiO2 detectándose un efecto sinérgico entre las especies lixiviadas de Ru (TON > 3000, TOF > 550 h-1) y los grupos funcionales del quitosán que ha sido estudiado mediante espectroscopia de absorción de rayos-X. Finalmente, el objetivo del capítulo 5 ha sido estabilizar las especies de Ru mediante un tratamiento térmico de pirólisis. Empleando un biopolímero natural se ha conseguido diseñar un catalizador estable, capaz de hidroformilar selectivamente el enlace terminal de olefinas de diferente tamaño de cadena con alta regioselectividad (S > 90%) que puede ser re-usado. Gracias al uso de técnicas espectroscópicas avanzadas se ha podido relacionar la actividad intrínseca de las especies de Ru soportadas identificándose a los átomos aislados de Ru como los más activos (TOF > 12.000 h-1). / [CA] This doctoral thesis has focused on the design and optimization of heterogeneous Pd and Ru catalysts supported on metallic oxides and carbon materials. In order to optimize the catalysts a relationship has been stablished between the observed reaction kinetics and the physico-chemical properties of the materials by means of different characterization techniques (XPS, HAADF-STEM, photoluminescence, IR ¿) following an iterative kinetic test-characterization-optimization process. In particular, this thesis can be divided in two different parts depending on the reaction studied: 1. In chapter 3, different catalysts based on Au, Pd and Pd(OH)2 supported on a variety of mixed oxides have been prepared with the aim of performing the oxidative homocoupling of methyl benzoate in absence of solvent with molecular oxygen as the only oxidising agent. In this case, Pd clusters have been identified as the active species by means of photoluminescence and infrared spectroscopy using CO as probe molecule. After identifying the active species, a specific activation pre-treatment could be designed in order to maximize the catalytic activity which is on par with the homogeneous Pd(OAc)2 counterpart. 2. In the next chapter (Chapter 4), the hydroformylation of 1-hexene using alternative Ru based catalysts was studied. In particular, a series of hybrid organic-inorganic Ru catalysts composed of a natural biopolymer, chitosan, and SiO2 were developed which showed and interesting synergistic effect between the lixiviated species of Ru and the functional groups of chitosan. This effect was studied by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. The catalyst showed a high activity (TON > 3000 and TOF > 550 h-1) as well as a high regioselectivity towards formation of lineal aldehyde (S > 95%). 3. Finally, the objective of chapter 5 was to go one step further trying to stabilize the Ru species observed in previous chapter by means of a pyrolytic thermal treatment. Thus, with the aid of a natural biopolymer and a carbonaceous support the goal of designing a reusable and stable catalyst, able to selectively catalyse the hydroformylation of terminal olefins with variable chain length and high regioselectivity (S > 90%) towards the lineal aldehyde was successfully achieved. In this case, the intrinsic activity of the different Ru supported entities was studied by advanced spectroscopy techniques allowing the identification of isolated single Ru atoms as the most active catalytic centers (TOF > 12000 h-1) / [EN] En general, el treball realitzat durant la present tesi doctoral s'ha centrat en l'optimització de catalitzadors heterogenis basats en Pd i Ru suportat sobre òxids metàl·lics i materials carbonacis. Amb l'objectiu d'optimitzar els catalitzadors, s'ha establert una relació entre els resultats dels experiments catalítics i les propietats fisicoquímiques dels materials mitjançant la utilització de diferents tècniques (XPS, HAADF - STEM, fotoluminescència, IR,...) seguint un esquema iteratiu d'assaig - caracterització - optimització. En concret, la present tesi doctoral es pot dividir en dos parts, en funció de les reaccions estudiades: 1. En la primera part, capítol 3, s'han preparat catalitzadors basats en Au, Pd i Pd(OH)2 suportat sobre diferents òxids metàl·lics amb l'objectiu de realitzar la reacció d'homoacoblament oxidatiu del benzoat de metil en absència de dissolvent i utilitzant oxigen com a únic agent oxidant. S'ha aconseguit identificar els clústers de Pd com a espècies actives de la reacció gràcies a l'espectroscòpia d'infraroig d'adsorció de CO i a la fotoluminescència. D'aquesta forma, s'ha pogut dissenyar un pretractament d'activació específic per aconseguir maximitzar l'activitat catalítica. S'han aconseguit obtenir uns valors de rendiment catalític similars al presentats pel catalitzador homogeni Pd(OAc)2. 2. En la segona part de la tesi, s'ha estudiat la hidroformilació de l'1-hexè utilitzant catalitzadors alternatius basats en Ru. En concret, en el capítol 4, s'han desenvolupat catalitzadors de Ru suportats sobre una matriu orgànica - inorgànica constituïda per un biopolímer natural, quitosan, i SiO2. Així doncs, s'ha pogut detectar un efecte sinèrgic entre les espècies lixiviades de Ru (TON > 3000 and TOF > 550 h-1) i els grups funcionals del quitosan. Dit efecte s'ha estudiat per mitjà de l'espectroscòpia d'absorció de rajos X. Finalment, l'objectiu del capítol 5 ha consistit en estabilitzar les espècies de Ru per mitjà d'un tractament tèrmic de piròlisis. Utilitzant un biopolímer natural, s'ha aconseguit dissenyar un catalitzador estable, capaç d'hidroformilar selectivament i amb una elevada regioselectivitat (S> 90%) l'enllaç terminal d'olefines de diferent longitud; i poder ésser posteriorment reutilitzat. A partir de tècniques d'espectroscòpia avançades, s'ha pogut relacionar l'activitat intrínseca de les espècies de Ru suportades, i s'han identificat els àtoms aïllats de Ru com aquelles espècies més actives (TOF > 12.000 h-1). / Escobar Bedia, FJ. (2021). Catalizadores metálicos subnanométricos altamente eficientes en reacciones de formación de enlaces C-C [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/172628 / TESIS

This master thesis deals with study of chitosan-lignohumate, chitosan-polystyrenesulfonate, chitosan-alginate and chitosan-carrageenan polyelectrolyte complexes. The work was motivated by research of finding suitable alternative substance for lignohumate. The molecular weights of substances were characterized using SEC-MALLS. A degree and a character of the interactions between polyelectrolyte were studied by isothermal titration calorimetry and dynamic light scattering method. The calorimetric experiments proved that decreasing concentration of samples causes decreasing of heat flow. The best calorimetric measurements were provided by adding chitosan into polymer solution. The interactions between chitosan and polyanions and influence of mixing order were proved also by measuring intensity of zeta potential, Z-average of particle size and turbidity. New chitosan-based materials have a big potential in agriculture and medicine.

L'attractivité des matériaux polymères issus de ressources renouvelables augmente continuellement en raison de la prise de conscience environnementale de la société. Dans ce contexte, l’acide polylactique (PLA) est un biopolymère qui possède d’indéniables atouts (notamment en termes de rigidité et résistance en traction/flexion) permettant d’envisager des applications à grande échelle, par exemple pour l’automobile. Cependant, les applications durables du PLA sont encore considérablement restreintes à cause de sa fragilité et de sa stabilité thermique limitée. Dans cette thèse, nous nous sommes focalisés sur la conception de nouveaux matériaux à base de PLA pour des applications dans l’automobile, en travaillant notamment sur l’amélioration des propriétés thermiques et mécaniques (notamment la ductilité), y compris sous haute vitesse de déformation. Ainsi, la composition optimale permettant d’atteindre le meilleur compromis entre différentes propriétés (ductilité, résistance et rigidité, résilience, stabilité thermique…), tout en étant composée d’au moins 50% de matériaux biosourcés est déterminée. D'autres stratégies visant à améliorer la capacité ou la vitesse de cristallisation des compositions à base de PLA ont également été étudiées. Dans tous ces développements, une attention particulière est portée sur l’étude des interactions entre structure, propriétés et process. / The interest to use polymeric materials derived from renewable resources increases continuously due to considerably improved environmental awareness and the expected depletion of petrochemical ressources. In this regard, Poly(lactic acid), PLA, is a biopolymer that can respond to the demand for such materials for a wide range of applications, thanks to interesting mechanical properties such as high tensile/flexural strength and rigidity, in particular. However, in many cases, durable applications of PLA have been significantly limited by its inherent brittleness and limited thermal stability. In this dissertation, we focused on the design of new biobased PLA materials for automotive parts subjected to severe loading and environmental conditions, by improving thermal and mechanical properties, including under high strain rate loadings. Thus, the most promising compound is selected as the one that offers the best balance between different properties (ductility, strength and stiffness, impact toughness, good thermal stability…) with a content of bio-sourced polymer in the blend at least equal to 50%. Other strategies to improve crystallinity of PLA-based compounds are also studied. In all those developments, a particular attention is paid to the study of structure-process-properties interactions.

The desire for repair of tissue defects and injury is the major need prompting research into tissue engineering. Engineering of anisotropic tissues requires production of ordered substrates that orient cells preferentially and support cell viability and differentiation. Towards this goal, this thesis investigated methodologies to align extracellular matrix structures in vitro to guide stem/progenitor cell behaviour for tissue regeneration. Aligned collagen fibrils were deposited on planar substrates from collagen solutions streaming through a microfluidic channel system. Collagen solution concentration, degree of gelation, shear rate and pre-coating of the substrate were demonstrated to determine the orientation and density of the immobilized fibrils. The degree of collagen fibril orientation increased with increasing flow rates of the solution while the matrix density increased at higher collagen solution concentrations and on hydrophobic polymer pre-coatings. Additionally, the length of the immobilized collagen fibrils increased with increasing solution concentration and gelation time. Aligned collagen matrices were refined by incorporating the glycosaminoglycan heparin to study multiple extracellular matrix components in a single system. Multilineage (osteogenic/adipogenic/chondrogenic) differentiation of mesenchymal stem and progenitor cells was maintained by the aligned structures. Most noticeable was the observation that during osteogenesis, aligned collagen substrates choreographed ordered matrix mineralization. Likewise, myotube assembly of C2C12 cells was profoundly influenced by aligned topographic features resulting in enhanced myotube organization and length. Neurites from neural stem cells were highly oriented in the direction of the underlying fibrils. Neurite outgrowth was enhanced on aligned collagen compared to non-aligned collagen or poly-D-lysine substrates, while neural differentiation and cell survival were not influenced by the type of substrate. Using the new method to align collagen type I, the interior walls of cellulose hollow fiber membranes were coated with longitudinally aligned collagen fibrils to fabricate an advanced guidance conduit for nerve regeneration. First cell culture experiments showed that the tubes coated with aligned collagen supported viability and adherence of spinal cord-derived neurospheres. Together, these results demonstrate the feasibility of aligned collagen matrices as a versatile platform to control cell behaviour towards tissue regeneration. Ultimately, the new method to align collagen fibrils and to coat hollow membranes may become an integral component of tissue engineering, working synergistically with other emerging techniques to promote functional tissue replacements.

ABSTRACT<p><p>This project aimed at developing a drug delivery system (DDS) able to enhance the stability and<p>residence time in vivo of antibodies (Abs). The system will deliver drug by the subcutaneous<p>route (SC), while ensuring accurate control of the drug release and the resulting plasmatic level. This technology platform will allow to reduce frequency of injection, potentially decrease side effects and maintain high concentration of Abs which will improve life of patient having chronic disease such as autoimmune and inflammatory disease. Biodegradable synthetic polymer-based formulations (polylactide-co-glycolide (PLGA)) were selected as carriers for encapsulated Abs. This was because they offer good protection for the Abs and allow sustained release of the Abs for a controlled period of time. After the evaluation of different encapsulation methods such as the water-oil-in-water (w/o/w) and the solid-in-oil-inwater<p>(s/o/w) processes, the encapsulation of the Ab in solid state (s/o/w) appeared to be more appropriate for producing Ab-loaded PLGA microspheres (MS). It allowed us to maintain the<p>Ab in a monomeric conformation and to avoid the formation of unsoluble aggregates mainly present at the water/oil interface. The first part of the project was the optimization of both the method for producing the Ab solid particles (spray-drying process) and the encapsulation of these Ab solid particles into the polymeric MS (s/o/w process) by design of experiment (DoE). These optimizations were carried out using a bovine polyclonal immunoglobulin G (IgG) as model molecule. In further optimization of the spray-drying process by (DoE), aqueous Ab solutions were spray-dried using a mini Spray-Dryer assembly with a 0.7 mm spray nozzle. In accordance with the particle size (d(0.5) ~5 μm), the stability (no loss of monomer measured by<p>size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and the yield of the spray-drying process (> 60 % w/w), the process parameters were set of follow: 3 mL/min as liquid feed flow rate, 130°C /75°C as inlet temperature (inlet T°) / outlet temperature (outlet T°), 800 L/h as atomization flow rate and<p>30 m3/h as drying air flow rate. For the s/o/w, the methylene chloride (MC) commonly used for<p>an encapsulation process was replaced by ethyl acetate (EtAc), which was considered as a more<p>suitable organic solvent in terms of both environmental and human safety. The effects of several processes and formulation factors were evaluated on IgG:PLGA MS properties such as: particle size distribution, drug loading, IgG stability, and encapsulation efficiency (EE%). Several formulations and processing parameters were also statistically identified as critical to get reproducible process (e.g. the PLGA concentration, the volume of the external phase, the emulsification rate, and the quantity of IgG microparticles). The optimized encapsulation<p>method of the IgG has shown a drug loading of up to 6 % (w/w) and an encapsulation efficiency<p>of up to 60 % (w/w) while preserving the integrity of the encapsulated antibody. The produced MS were characterized by a d(0.9) lower than 110 μm and showed burst effect lower than 50 %(w/w). In the second part of the project, the optimized spray-drying and s/o/w processes<p>developed with the IgG were applied to a humanized anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha<p>MAb to confirm the preservation of the MAb activity during these processes. The selected s/o/w method allowed us to produce MAb-loaded PLGA MS with an appropriate release profile up to 6 weeks and MAb stability. In order to maintain the Abs’ activity, both during encapsulation and<p>dissolution, the addition of a stabilizer such as trehalose appeared to be crucial, as did the<p>selection of the PLGA. It was demonstrated that the use of a PLGA characterized by a 75:25<p>lactide:glycolide (e.g. Resomer ® RG755S) ratio decreased the formation of low molecular weight species during dissolution, which led to preserve Abs activity through its release from the<p>delivery system. Furthermore, the release profile was adjusted according to the type of polymer<p>and its concentration. E.g. 10 % w/v RG755S allowed Ab MS with a release time of 6 weeks to<p>be obtained. The optimization of both the formulation and the encapsulation process allowed<p>maximum 13 % w/w Ab-loaded MS to be produced. It was demonstrated that the Ab-loaded PLGA MS were stable when stored at 5°C for up to 12 weeks and that the selection of the appropriate type of PLGA was critical to assuring the stability of the system. The better stability observed when using a PLGA characterized by a 75:25 lactide:glycolide ratio was attributed to<p>its slower degradation rate. Finally, the sustained release of Ab from the developed MS and the preservation of its activity was confirmed in vivo in a pharmacokinetic (pK) study realized in<p>rats. In conclusion, the application of the concept of entrapment into a polymer matrix for<p>stabilization and sustained release of biological compounds was demonstrated through this work.<p><p><p><p>RÉSUMÉ<p><p>Ce projet a pour but de développer un système de délivrance de médicament capable d’augmenter la stabilité et le temps de résidence in vivo des anticorps. Ce système sera administré par voie sous-cutanée et permettra un control précis de la libération du produit et de son niveau plasmatique. Cette plateforme technologique nous permettra de réduire la fréquence d’injection, de réduire potentiellement les effets secondaires et de maintenir des concentrations élevées en anticorps tout en améliorant la vie des patients atteints de maladies chroniques autoimmunes ou inflammatoires. Les formulations à base de polymères synthétiques, biodégradables (PLGA) ont été sélectionnés comme véhicules pour encapsuler les anticorps. Ils offrent en effet une bonne protection pour les anticorps and permettent une libération contrôlée de ceux-ci pendant une période définie. Après l’évaluation de différents méthodes d’encapsulation tels que les procédés d’eau-dans-huile-dans-eau (w/o/w) et solide-dans-huile-dans-eau (s/o/w), l’encapsulation des anticorps sous forme solide apparaissait plus apporpriée pour produire des microsphères de polymère chargées en anticorps. Cette technique nous permettait de maintenir l’anticorps sous sa forme monomérique et d’éviter la formation d’agrégats insolubles qui apparaissaient principalement à l’interface eau/huile. La première partie du projet a été d’optimiser à la fois la méthode nous permettant d’obtenir les anticorps sous forme de particules solides (spray-drying) et la méthode d’encapsulation de ces particules d’anticorps dans les microsphères de polymères. Cela a été réalisé par des plans d’expérience en utilisant une IgG bovine polyclonale comme molécule modèle. Durant l’optimisation du procédé de spray-drying,<p>les solutions aqueuses d’anticorps ont été atomisées en utilisant le mini Spray-Dryer assemblé avec une buse de pulvérisation d’un diamètre de 0.7 mm. En accord avec la taille particulaire (d(0.5) ~5 μm), la stabilité (absence de perte en monomère mesurée par chromatographie d’exclusion de taille et le rendement d’atomisation (> 60 % w/w), les paramètres d’atomisation ont été fixés: 3 mL/min pour le débit de liquide, 130°C /75°C pour la température d’entrée / température de sortie, 800 L/h pour le débit d’air d’atomisation et 30 m3/h pour le débit d’air de séchage. Pour le s/o/w, le dichlorométhane communément utilisé dans les procédés d’encapsulation a été remplacé par l’acétate d’éthyle qui est considéré comme un meilleure solvant organique en terme d’environnement et de sécurité. Les effets de plusieurs paramètres de fabrication ou de formulation ont été évalués sur les propriétés des microsphères polymériques d’anticorps (distribution de taille particulaire, taux de charge en anticorps, stabilité de l’anticorps et efficacité d’encapsulation). Plusieurs paramètres de fabrication et de formulation ont été statistiquement identifiés comme critiques pour obtenir un procédé reproductible (par exemple. La concentration en PLGA, le volume de phase externe, la vitesse d’émulsification et la quantité d’anticorps). La méthode d’encapsulation ainsi optimisée permettait d’obtenir un taux<p>de charge jusqu’à 6% (w/w) avec une efficacité d’encapsulation jusqu’à 60 % (w/w) tout en<p>préservant l’intégrité de l’anticorps encapsulé. Les microsphères produites étaient caractérisées<p>par un d(0.9) inférieur à 110 μm et montraient une libération après 24 h inférieure à 50 % (w/w).<p>Dans le seconde partie du projet, les procédés d’atomisation et d’encapsulation développés avec<p>l’IgG ont été appliqués à un anticorps monoclonal anti-TNF alpha humanisé pour confirmer la<p>conservation de l’activité de l’anticorps pendant ces procédés. La méthode s/o/w sélectionnée<p>permettait de produire des microsphères de PLGA chargées en anticorps avec un profil de libération jusqu’à 6 semaines et un maintien de la stabilité de l’actif. Afin de maintenir l’activité de l’anticorps, à la fois pendant le procédé d’encapsulation et pendant la libération, l’ajout d’un stabilisant tel que le tréhalose est apparu crucial ainsi que le choix du type de PLGA. Il a été démontré que l’utilisation du PLGA caractérisé par un ratio lactide :glycolide de 75 :25 (par exemple, Resomer ® RG755S) diminuait la formation d’espèces de faible poids moléculaire<p>pendant la dissolution. Cela contribuait à préserver l’activité de l’anticorps durant la libération à partir des microsphères. De plus, le profil de libération était modulé en fonction du type de polymère et de sa concentration. Par exemple, l’utilisation d’une solution à 10 % w/v RG755S conduisait à la production de microsphères d’anticorps avec un temps de libération sur 6<p>semaines. L’optimisation de la formulation et du procédé d’encapsulation a permis de produire<p>des microsphères avec des taux de charge en anticorps de maximum 13 % w/w. Il a été démontré<p>que ces microsphères, stockées à 5°C, étaient stables jusqu’à 12 semaines et que la sélection du<p>type de PLGA était critique pour assurer la stabilité du système. La meilleure stabilité a été<p>obtenue en utilisant le PLGA caractérisé par un ratio lactide :glycolide de 75 :25. Cela a été<p>attribué à sa plus faible vitesse de dégradation. Enfin, la libération contrôlée de l’anticorps à<p>partir de ces microsphères et la conservation de son activité ont été confirmées in vivo lors d’une<p>étude pharmacocinétique réalisée chez le rat. En conclusion, ce travail a permis de démontrer<p>l’application du concept d’ « emprisonnement » des composés biologiques dans des matrices<p>polymériques afin de les stabiliser et contrôler leur libération. / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished